{
  "roots": [
    {
      "id": "pie-horse",
      "label": "PIE horse word",
      "form": "*h₁éḱwos",
      "gloss": "horse",
      "color": "#d8ad97",
      "description": "The PIE horse noun *h₁éḱwos is represented by separate Scottish Gaelic, Iranian and Greek route colours. Scottish Gaelic each continues Proto-Celtic *ekʷos via Old Irish ech. Iranian asp/asb/hesp words have their own histories. Greek learned ίππος continues Ancient Greek ἵππος and coexists with everyday άλογο. These selected forms are not an exhaustive list of surviving reflexes; Latin equus is another. Stripes show coexisting word origins rather than separate language territories.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h₁éḱwos",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction%3AProto-Indo-European%2Fh%E2%82%81%C3%A9%E1%B8%B1wos"
        },
        {
          "title": "Encyclopaedia Iranica: ASB i., Iranian horse terminology",
          "url": "https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/asb-pre-islamic-iran/"
        },
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: Scottish Gaelic each, via Old Irish ech and Proto-Celtic *ekʷos",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/each#Scottish_Gaelic"
        },
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: Greek ίππος, another surviving PIE horse-word reflex",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%AF%CF%80%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%82#Greek"
        },
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: Latin equus, inherited PIE horse noun",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/equus#Latin"
        },
        {
          "title": "Ivanov (1999), Comparative Notes, PDF p. 36: Talysh, Gilyan and Mazandarani horse forms",
          "url": "https://urkesh.org/attach/Ivanov1999a.pdf#page=36"
        },
        {
          "title": "Cathcart (2015), Iranian Dialectology and Dialectometry, p. 135: Mazandarani asb",
          "url": "https://escholarship.org/content/qt77w684h2/qt77w684h2.pdf"
        }
      ],
      "routes": [
        {
          "id": "pie-celtic",
          "label": "Scottish Gaelic route",
          "form": "*ekʷos",
          "gloss": "horse",
          "legend": "Scottish Gaelic · *ekʷos → each",
          "color": "#7da8ad",
          "description": "The displayed modern word each is Scottish Gaelic. Its ancestor *ekʷos is reconstructed Proto-Celtic, not a Scottish Gaelic word: PIE *h₁éḱwos → Proto-Celtic *ekʷos → Old Irish ech → Scottish Gaelic each."
        },
        {
          "id": "pie-iranian",
          "label": "Iranian route",
          "form": "*Hácwah",
          "gloss": "horse",
          "legend": "Iranian *Hácwah · “horse” → asb / hesp",
          "color": "#d8ad97",
          "description": "PIE *h₁éḱwos → Proto-Indo-Iranian *Háćwas → Proto-Iranian *Hácwah → the selected asp/asb/hesp forms. Individual histories include Iranian-internal borrowing. Gilaki, Iranian Talysh and Mazandarani asb are separately documented regional forms. The shared origin colour does not imply that each selected form has an uninterrupted inheritance history: Iranian-internal borrowing is possible."
        },
        {
          "id": "pie-greek",
          "label": "Greek inherited / learned route",
          "form": "ἵππος",
          "gloss": "horse",
          "legend": "Greek ἵππος · “horse” (learned)",
          "color": "#b5c8bc",
          "description": "PIE *h₁éḱwos → Ancient Greek ἵππος (híppos) → learned Modern Greek ίππος. This coexists with everyday άλογο, which has a separate origin."
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "caballus",
      "label": "Caballus word-family",
      "form": "caballus / *kaballos",
      "gloss": "pack horse; nag",
      "color": "#e7b39f",
      "description": "The caballus / *kaballos word-family is shown under one shared heading with three separately coloured routes. Romance words continue Latin caballus; Albanian kalë is borrowed through Latin. Irish capall, Manx cabbyl and Welsh ceffyl belong to the related Celtic word-family, with disputed early borrowing directions and deeper origin. The shared heading does not assert that every Celtic term descends directly from Latin. This family is distinct from Latin equus, the inherited PIE horse noun.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: caballus",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/caballus"
        },
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: capall (Irish)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/capall#Irish"
        },
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: ceffyl (Welsh)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ceffyl#Welsh"
        },
        {
          "title": "Lewis & Short, A Latin Dictionary: caballus",
          "url": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry=caballus"
        }
      ],
      "legend": "caballus / *kaballos · “pack horse; nag”",
      "routes": [
        {
          "id": "caballus-romance",
          "label": "Romance route",
          "form": "caballus",
          "gloss": "pack horse; nag",
          "color": "#e7b39f",
          "legend": "Latin → Romance · caballo / cheval",
          "description": "Latin caballus → the Romance horse words shown here, including Spanish caballo, French cheval and Italian cavallo."
        },
        {
          "id": "caballus-celtic",
          "label": "Celtic route",
          "form": "*kaballos",
          "gloss": "horse",
          "color": "#a6bfce",
          "legend": "Celtic · capall / cabbyl / ceffyl",
          "description": "The related caballos word-family in Celtic: Irish capall, Manx cabbyl and Welsh ceffyl. Early forms and borrowing directions differ by word and remain disputed; this row does not make all three direct descendants of Latin caballus."
        },
        {
          "id": "caballus-albanian",
          "label": "Albanian route",
          "form": "caballus → *kəβal",
          "gloss": "horse",
          "color": "#c49fc5",
          "legend": "Latin → Albanian · kalë",
          "description": "A Latin loan into Albanian: caballus → Proto-Albanian *kəβal → Albanian kalë."
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "germanic-horse",
      "label": "Germanic",
      "form": "*hrussą",
      "gloss": "horse",
      "color": "#96c8d4",
      "description": "English horse and Scots horse descend through Old English hors from Germanic *hrussą (also reconstructed *hursą). Proposed deeper derivations exist, including a connection with running, but are not certain. This is not *h₁éḱwos.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/hrussą",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction%3AProto-Germanic%2Fhruss%C4%85"
        },
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: horse (English)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/horse#English"
        }
      ],
      "legend": "Germanic *hrussą · “horse”"
    },
    {
      "id": "post-horse",
      "label": "Late Latin",
      "form": "paraverēdus",
      "gloss": "spare post horse",
      "color": "#b49bb7",
      "description": "German Pferd, Dutch paard and Luxembourgish Päerd continue a borrowing of Late Latin paraverēdus, a substitute post horse. It combines Greek para- with Latin verēdus, a Gaulish loan. The whole word is not the ordinary inherited Germanic horse noun.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: paraveredus",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/paraveredus"
        },
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: Pferd (German)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Pferd#German"
        },
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: paard (Dutch)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/paard#Dutch"
        }
      ],
      "legend": "Latin paraverēdus · “spare post horse”"
    },
    {
      "id": "germanic-stallion",
      "label": "Germanic",
      "form": "*hangistaz",
      "gloss": "horse; stallion",
      "color": "#a5c9ba",
      "description": "The Scandinavian hest/häst/hestur set descends from Germanic *hangistaz / *hanhistaz. West Frisian hynder is a compound based on the cognate hynst plus dier. Northern Sámi heasta and Greenlandic hiisti are Scandinavian borrowings. Their shared colour follows the word history rather than language family.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: Reconstruction:Proto-Germanic/hangistaz",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction%3AProto-Germanic%2Fhangistaz"
        },
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: hynder (West Frisian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hynder#West_Frisian"
        },
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: hiisti (Greenlandic)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hiisti#Greenlandic"
        },
        {
          "title": "Matsumoto Ryo, Horse in Uralic, Linguistic Atlas of Asia and Africa, p.147",
          "url": "https://geolinguistics.sakura.ne.jp/Monograph/SiG-mono3-LAAA-1-ebook.pdf"
        }
      ],
      "legend": "Germanic *hangistaz · “stallion”"
    },
    {
      "id": "slavic-horse",
      "label": "Slavic",
      "form": "*kòňь",
      "gloss": "horse",
      "color": "#acb6d5",
      "description": "The selected Slavic konj/koń/kinʹ forms belong to the inherited Proto-Slavic horse set. Its deeper origin is debated, so no definite connection to the PIE *h₁éḱwos set is drawn. Russian also has конь; the common generic лошадь is selected separately.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: Reconstruction:Proto-Slavic/koňь",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction%3AProto-Slavic%2Fko%C5%88%D1%8C"
        },
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: konj (Serbo-Croatian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/konj#Serbo-Croatian"
        },
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: кінь (Ukrainian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%8C#Ukrainian"
        }
      ],
      "legend": "Slavic *kòňь · “horse”"
    },
    {
      "id": "russian-turkic",
      "label": "Turkic → Russian",
      "form": "лоша / alaša",
      "gloss": "horse; pack horse",
      "color": "#baad86",
      "description": "Russian лошадь comes through Old East Slavic лоша from a Turkic source, compared with Tatar алаша and Chuvash лаша. The donor variety and deeper history are not fixed here. This set is distinct from Turkic at.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: лошадь (Russian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8C#Russian"
        }
      ],
      "legend": "Turkic → Russian loša · “horse”"
    },
    {
      "id": "lithuanian-plough",
      "label": "Lithuanian",
      "form": "arklas → arklys",
      "gloss": "plough → horse",
      "color": "#c0ce95",
      "description": "Lithuanian arklys is an agentive derivative connected with arklas, plough: a ploughing animal. It is not the same selected word as Latvian zirgs, although Lithuanian also has the cognate žirgas.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: arklys (Lithuanian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/arklys#Lithuanian"
        }
      ],
      "legend": "Lithuanian arklas · “plough” → arklys"
    },
    {
      "id": "baltic-steed",
      "label": "Baltic",
      "form": "*źirˀgás",
      "gloss": "horse; steed",
      "color": "#b7c990",
      "description": "Latvian zirgs continues a Baltic horse word, cognate with Lithuanian žirgas. The map selects Lithuanian arklys separately rather than merging the two countries by family.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: zirgs (Latvian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/zirgs#Latvian"
        }
      ],
      "legend": "Baltic *źirˀgás · “horse; steed”"
    },
    {
      "id": "celtic-markos",
      "label": "Celtic",
      "form": "*markos",
      "gloss": "horse",
      "color": "#9fc9b0",
      "description": "Breton marc’h and Cornish margh continue Celtic *markos. Its relationship to Germanic *marhaz and its deeper origin are debated. It is distinct from Celtic *ekwos, which survives in Scottish Gaelic each.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/markos",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction%3AProto-Celtic%2Fmarkos"
        }
      ],
      "legend": "Celtic *markos · “horse”"
    },
    {
      "id": "greek-speechless",
      "label": "Greek",
      "form": "álogos",
      "gloss": "unreasoning; speechless",
      "color": "#c9abd5",
      "description": "Modern Greek άλογο comes from the neuter of Ancient Greek ἄλογος, unreasoning or speechless, through its use for horse. Greek also has ίππος from the PIE horse word, but that is not the common label selected here.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: άλογο (Greek)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%BF#Greek"
        }
      ],
      "legend": "Greek álogos · “unreasoning; speechless”"
    },
    {
      "id": "armenian-steed",
      "label": "Armenian",
      "form": "*ǵʰéyos",
      "gloss": "horse; “drive” root",
      "color": "#baa8ce",
      "description": "Armenian ձի continues Old Armenian ji, compared with Vedic háya, horse, from a proposed Indo-European formation *ǵʰéyos associated with driving or impelling. It is kept separate from the regular *h₁éḱwos horse noun.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: ձի (Old Armenian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D5%B1%D5%AB#Old_Armenian"
        },
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/ǵʰéyos",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction%3AProto-Indo-European%2F%C7%B5%CA%B0%C3%A9yos"
        }
      ],
      "legend": "Armenian *ǵʰéyos · “horse; steed”"
    },
    {
      "id": "romani-grast",
      "label": "Armenian loan into Romani",
      "form": "grast",
      "gloss": "pack animal; beast of burden",
      "color": "#8b6b8f",
      "legend": "Armenian grast · “pack animal” → Romani",
      "description": "Romani grast, gras, gra and graj are cognate forms of an early Armenian loan. The selected Romanian grast and German Sinti graj share this origin colour. This is a distinct word history from Armenian dzi on the map. Different Romani varieties are not assumed to have unrelated horse nouns simply because they live in different countries.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Halwachs, Klinge and Schrammel-Leber (2013), RomIdent Paper 3, p. 10 table 2: Romani horse cognates and Armenian loan origin",
          "url": "https://www.kratylos.org/~raphael/romani/virtuallibrary/librarydb/web/files/pdfs/356/Paper3.pdf#page=11"
        },
        {
          "title": "Manchester Romani Project: Early Romani, Armenian loan grast",
          "url": "https://www.kratylos.org/~raphael/romani/whatis/language/earlyromani.html"
        },
        {
          "title": "ArmDict English–Armenian dictionary: beast of burden, գրաստ",
          "url": "https://www.armdict.com/dictionary/english-armenian/beast"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "ossetian-horse",
      "label": "Ossetian",
      "form": "bæx",
      "gloss": "horse",
      "color": "#c5bec9",
      "description": "Ossetian бӕх continues Alanic *bæx. Its deeper ancestry is unresolved here; belonging to Iranian does not make this noun a descendant of the asp/asb horse set.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: бӕх (Ossetian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B1%D3%95%D1%85#Ossetian"
        }
      ],
      "legend": "Ossetian bæx · “horse”"
    },
    {
      "id": "finnic-horse",
      "label": "Finnic",
      "form": "*hëpo",
      "gloss": "horse",
      "color": "#e6cf87",
      "description": "Finnish hevonen and Estonian hobune continue diminutive formations of the Finnic horse word *hëpo; Karelian and Veps hebo continue the shorter form. A Germanic or other Indo-European source has been proposed, but no secure deeper link is asserted.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: Reconstruction:Proto-Finnic/hëpo",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction%3AProto-Finnic%2Fh%C3%ABpo"
        },
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: hevonen (Finnish)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hevonen#Finnish"
        }
      ],
      "legend": "Finnic *hëpo · “horse”"
    },
    {
      "id": "ugric-horse",
      "label": "Ugric",
      "form": "*luɣǝ",
      "gloss": "horse",
      "color": "#d9b66c",
      "description": "Hungarian ló (stem lov-), Khanty ԓов (Kazym łow, often simplified lov) and Northern Mansi лув (luw) share the inherited Ugric horse-word set. The Hungarian etymological dictionary reconstructs *luβɜ or *luγɜ. Its earlier donor and remote origin remain unresolved; no definite deeper Indo-European ancestry is asserted.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: ló (Hungarian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/l%C3%B3#Hungarian"
        },
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: Reconstruction:Proto-Ugric/luɣǝ",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction%3AProto-Ugric%2Flu%C9%A3%C7%9D"
        },
        {
          "title": "HUN-REN, Új magyar etimológiai szótár: ló, Ugric inheritance and Khanty/Mansi cognates",
          "url": "https://uesz.nytud.hu/index.html?uuid=c14ded34-7c44-1014-a8d2-ae24c20aeb7e"
        },
        {
          "title": "V. N. Solovar 2014, Khanty–Russian Dictionary (Kazym dialect), p. 154: ԓов, horse",
          "url": "https://ouipiir.ru/sites/default/files/docs/635-1402.pdf"
        },
        {
          "title": "Ob-Ugric Institute, short Mansi–Russian dictionary: лув, horse",
          "url": "https://mansy-audio-dic.ouipiir.ru/"
        }
      ],
      "legend": "Ugric *luɣǝ · “horse” → ló / łow / luw"
    },
    {
      "id": "permic-horse",
      "label": "Permic",
      "form": "*vɔ̇l",
      "gloss": "horse",
      "color": "#e3ce91",
      "description": "Udmurt вал and Komi вӧв are cognates continuing Permic *vɔ̇l, compared with a wider *wälɜ animal-word set. No direct connection with Hungarian ló or Finnic *hëpo is asserted.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: вал (Udmurt)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB#Udmurt"
        },
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: вӧв (Komi-Zyrian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B2%D3%A7%D0%B2#Komi-Zyrian"
        }
      ],
      "legend": "Permic *vɔ̇l · “horse”"
    },
    {
      "id": "mari-horse",
      "label": "Mari",
      "form": "imne / imni",
      "gloss": "horse",
      "color": "#d6c49b",
      "description": "Meadow Mari имне is cognate with Hill Mari имни. This attested Mari set is shown without an invented common Uralic horse root.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: имне (Eastern Mari)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B5#Eastern_Mari"
        },
        {
          "title": "Matsumoto Ryo, Horse in Uralic, p.147",
          "url": "https://geolinguistics.sakura.ne.jp/Monograph/SiG-mono3-LAAA-1-ebook.pdf"
        }
      ],
      "legend": "Mari imne / imni · “horse”"
    },
    {
      "id": "nenets-horse",
      "label": "Turkic → Samoyedic",
      "form": "*juntå",
      "gloss": "horse",
      "color": "#a5b8a1",
      "description": "Tundra Nenets юно continues the Samoyedic *juntå horse set, traced to Old Turkic yunt. It is distinct from the Turkic at and yïlkï sets. Forest Nenets has a different Ugric loan; this map uses a Tundra Nenets reference.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "COPIUS, Samoyedic historical phonology: *juntå → Tundra Nenets juna/juno",
          "url": "https://copius.univie.ac.at/etymology/slides_13_samo.pdf"
        },
        {
          "title": "Matsumoto Ryo, Horse in Uralic, p.147",
          "url": "https://geolinguistics.sakura.ne.jp/Monograph/SiG-mono3-LAAA-1-ebook.pdf"
        }
      ],
      "legend": "Turkic → Samoyedic *juntå · “horse”"
    },
    {
      "id": "basque-horse",
      "label": "Basque",
      "form": "zaldi",
      "gloss": "horse",
      "color": "#dd9990",
      "description": "Basque zaldi is an old Basque horse word. Its remote origin is not resolved by the present comparison and no shared PIE ancestry is asserted.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: zaldi (Basque)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/zaldi#Basque"
        }
      ],
      "legend": "Basque zaldi · “horse”"
    },
    {
      "id": "arabic-hisan",
      "label": "Arabic",
      "form": "ḥiṣān",
      "gloss": "horse; stallion",
      "color": "#e8c69a",
      "description": "The selected Arabic citation form حصان means horse or stallion and belongs to the root ḥ-ṣ-n. It is distinct from the sus/susya set in Hebrew and Aramaic. Regional vowels vary; these labels are representative forms, not an inventory of all local synonyms.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: حصان (Arabic)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B5%D8%A7%D9%86#Arabic"
        }
      ],
      "legend": "Arabic ḥiṣān · “horse; stallion”"
    },
    {
      "id": "arabic-awd",
      "label": "Arabic ʕawd horse word",
      "form": "ʕawd",
      "gloss": "camel trained for riding; horse",
      "legend": "Arabic ʕawd · “riding camel” → horse",
      "color": "#d0a57a",
      "description": "Maghrebi Arabic عود is represented by Algerian ʿūd and Moroccan ʿawd. The proposed earlier Arabic sense is a camel trained for riding. Kossmann (2013, pp. 149–150) explicitly derives Kabyle aɛawḏiw / aɛudiw from Maghrebi Arabic ɛǝwd(a), so the Kabyle loan shares this origin colour. These are distinct from the ḥiṣān and faras horse-word sets.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Lameen Souag (2002), The Algerian Arabic of Dellys: ʕud / ʕwad, horse, appendix p. 33",
          "url": "https://journals.uco.es/index.php/edna/article/download/8302/7778"
        },
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: Algerian Arabic عود, from Arabic ʕawd, a camel trained for riding",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%88%D8%AF#Algerian_Arabic"
        },
        {
          "title": "Kossmann (2013), The Arabic Influence on Northern Berber, pp. 149–150: horse words and Arabic loans",
          "url": "https://amyaz.fr/uploads/66db4e13ca98e.pdf"
        },
        {
          "title": "Darija Dictionary: عود, horse, with native audio",
          "url": "https://darijadictionary.com/en/index/horse-in-moroccan-arabic-darija/"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "arabic-faras",
      "label": "Arabic faras set",
      "form": "faras",
      "gloss": "horse; mare",
      "color": "#cfbf85",
      "legend": "Arabic faras · “horse; mare”",
      "description": "The written Hassaniya horse word فرس is documented in the Peace Corps handbook, p. 249. It belongs to the Arabic faras horse-word set, distinct from ḥiṣān and ʿawd. The map uses frs as a consonant-only transliteration because the exact local vocalization has not been verified; it must not be read as an IPA pronunciation or silently replaced by the standard Arabic reading.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Peace Corps (1979), Hassaniya Arabic handbook, p. 249: written فرس, horse",
          "url": "https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED294423.pdf#page=269"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "semitic-sus",
      "label": "Hebrew & Aramaic",
      "form": "sūs / sūsyā",
      "gloss": "horse",
      "color": "#e5bb82",
      "description": "Hebrew sus and the selected Aramaic and Mandaic words belong to the old sūs/sūsyā horse-word set, also compared with Akkadian sīsû. Early borrowing and ultimate origins are disputed; they are not linked automatically to Arabic ḥiṣān or PIE *h₁éḱwos.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: סוס (Hebrew)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A1#Hebrew"
        },
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: ܣܘܣܝܐ (Classical Syriac)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%DC%A3%DC%98%DC%A3%DC%9D%DC%90#Classical_Syriac"
        },
        {
          "title": "Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon, swsy horse",
          "url": "https://cal.huc.edu/oneentry.php?lemma=swsy%20N&cits=all"
        }
      ],
      "legend": "Hebrew–Aramaic sūs / sūsyā · “horse”"
    },
    {
      "id": "maltese-horse",
      "label": "Arabic → Maltese",
      "form": "zāmil",
      "gloss": "horse; pack animal",
      "color": "#dfc29b",
      "description": "Maltese żiemel comes from Arabic zāmil, horse or wild ass, related to zāmila, a load-carrying she-camel. The semantic history involves a pack animal; this is not a reflex of the sus or ḥiṣān sets.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: żiemel (Maltese)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%C5%BCiemel#Maltese"
        }
      ],
      "legend": "Arabic zāmil · “horse; pack animal”"
    },
    {
      "id": "berber-horse",
      "label": "Berber",
      "form": "ayis / ayyis",
      "gloss": "horse",
      "color": "#e3b17f",
      "description": "Central Atlas Tamazight ayis, Tachelhit ayyis and Rif yis belong to the inherited Berber horse-word set. Kossmann distinguishes them from Arabic-derived horse words and from the agmar set. No speculative remote Indo-European etymology is asserted.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: ⴰⵢⵉⵙ (Central Atlas Tamazight)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%A2%E2%B5%89%E2%B5%99#Central_Atlas_Tamazight"
        },
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: ayyis (Tashelhit)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ayyis#Tashelhit"
        },
        {
          "title": "Tamazight–English Dictionary, horse: ayyis",
          "url": "https://www.temehu.com/imazighen/dictionaries/Amawals/tamazight-english-dictionary-acf.pdf"
        },
        {
          "title": "Kossmann (2013), The Arabic Influence on Northern Berber, pp. 149–150: horse words and Arabic loans",
          "url": "https://amyaz.fr/uploads/66db4e13ca98e.pdf"
        },
        {
          "title": "Kossmann, WOLD Tarifiyt: yis, horse, Common Berber; no evidence of borrowing",
          "url": "https://wold.clld.org/word/7212058936344482"
        }
      ],
      "legend": "Berber ayis / ayyis · “horse”"
    },
    {
      "id": "berber-agmar",
      "label": "Berber agmar set",
      "form": "agmar / aǧmar",
      "gloss": "horse",
      "color": "#aaa275",
      "legend": "Berber agmar / aǧmar · “horse”",
      "description": "Nafusi agmár and Ghadames aǧmar are members of the Berber GMR horse-word set, separate from ayis / yis and from Arabic horse loans. The comparison stops at this Berber set; a Latin or other remote origin is not asserted.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Marijn van Putten, Nefusa Text: The story of the wild animals, agmár, horse, analysing Beguinot 1942",
          "url": "https://orientalberber.wordpress.com/category/nefusa/"
        },
        {
          "title": "Kossmann (2013), The Arabic Influence on Northern Berber, pp. 149–150: horse words and Arabic loans",
          "url": "https://amyaz.fr/uploads/66db4e13ca98e.pdf"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "turkic-at",
      "label": "Turkic",
      "form": "*at",
      "gloss": "horse",
      "color": "#b2d0ba",
      "description": "The at/ot set continues the Common Turkic horse word. Uzbek ot reflects the same set. Kazakh has at too, but the common species/livestock noun жылқы is selected separately.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: Reconstruction:Proto-Turkic/at",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction%3AProto-Turkic%2Fat"
        },
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: at (Turkish)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/at#Turkish"
        }
      ],
      "legend": "Turkic *at · “horse”"
    },
    {
      "id": "turkic-livestock",
      "label": "Turkic",
      "form": "*yïlkï",
      "gloss": "livestock; horses",
      "color": "#a6c4a2",
      "description": "Kazakh жылқы continues the Turkic yïlkï livestock/horse-herd term, related to the word for year or age in the cited analysis. It is a different lexical origin from at.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: жылқы (Kazakh)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B6%D1%8B%D0%BB%D2%9B%D1%8B#Kazakh"
        }
      ],
      "legend": "Turkic *yïlkï · “livestock; horses”"
    },
    {
      "id": "kartvelian-horse",
      "label": "Kartvelian",
      "form": "*cxen-",
      "gloss": "horse",
      "color": "#bea1ca",
      "description": "Georgian ცხენი continues Old Georgian ცხენი and is compared with Mingrelian and Laz forms in the Kartvelian *cxen- set. No PIE horse etymology is asserted.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: ცხენი (Georgian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%83%AA%E1%83%AE%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98#Georgian"
        }
      ],
      "legend": "Kartvelian *cxen- · “horse”"
    },
    {
      "id": "nakh-horse",
      "label": "Nakh",
      "form": "*gabr",
      "gloss": "horse",
      "color": "#bda8a0",
      "description": "Chechen and Ingush говр continue a Nakh horse-word set. The deeper history is not resolved here.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: говр (Chechen)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%80#Chechen"
        },
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: говр (Ingush)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%80#Ingush"
        }
      ],
      "legend": "Nakh *gabr · “horse”"
    },
    {
      "id": "circassian-horse",
      "label": "Circassian",
      "form": "*čǝ",
      "gloss": "horse",
      "color": "#9eb6bb",
      "description": "Adyghe and Kabardian шы continue the Circassian horse-word set. It is kept separate from the selected Northeast Caucasian words.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: шы (East Circassian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D1%88%D1%8B#East_Circassian"
        },
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: шы (West Circassian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D1%88%D1%8B#West_Circassian"
        }
      ],
      "legend": "Circassian *čǝ · “horse”"
    },
    {
      "id": "avar-horse",
      "label": "Avar",
      "form": "ču",
      "gloss": "horse",
      "color": "#8f9dbc",
      "description": "Avar чу is the documented horse noun. Proposed early Indo-Iranian connections in Caucasian horse terminology are not treated as settled by this map.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: чу (Avar)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D1%87%D1%83#Avar"
        }
      ],
      "legend": "Avar ču · “horse”"
    },
    {
      "id": "dargwa-horse",
      "label": "Dargwa",
      "form": "urči",
      "gloss": "horse",
      "color": "#b3a58e",
      "description": "Dargwa урчи is the documented horse noun. An early Iranian source is proposed in the cited etymological material, but its chronology and relationship to neighbouring Caucasian words are left unresolved here.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: урчи (Dargwa)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D1%83%D1%80%D1%87%D0%B8#Dargwa"
        }
      ],
      "legend": "Dargwa urči · “horse”"
    },
    {
      "id": "lezgian-horse",
      "label": "Lezgian",
      "form": "šiv",
      "gloss": "horse",
      "color": "#b0b787",
      "description": "Lezgian шив is an attested horse noun. Its remote relationship to other Caucasian and Iranian words is not established here.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: шив (Lezgi)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%B2#Lezgi"
        }
      ],
      "legend": "Lezgian šiv · “horse”"
    },
    {
      "id": "lak-horse",
      "label": "Lak",
      "form": "čvu",
      "gloss": "horse",
      "color": "#9eada0",
      "description": "Lak чву is an attested horse noun. It is shown as a local comparison set rather than assigned an unsupported deep ancestor.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: чву (Lak)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D1%87%D0%B2%D1%83#Lak"
        }
      ],
      "legend": "Lak čvu · “horse”"
    },
    {
      "id": "mongolic-horse",
      "label": "Mongolic",
      "form": "*morin",
      "gloss": "horse",
      "color": "#d9c59e",
      "description": "Kalmyk мөрн in the horse sense continues Mongolic *morin. A homograph means river and has a different origin; that river etymology does not apply to this map.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: мөрн (Kalmyk)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%BC%D3%A9%D1%80%D0%BD#Kalmyk"
        }
      ],
      "legend": "Mongolic *morin · “horse”"
    },
    {
      "id": "domari-ghota",
      "label": "Indo-Aryan ghota set",
      "form": "ghōṭa",
      "gloss": "horse",
      "color": "#6f9d96",
      "legend": "Indo-Aryan ghōṭa · “horse” → Domari",
      "description": "Aleppo Domari agōra belongs to the inherited Indo-Aryan ghōṭa horse-word set documented by Herin. It is distinct from the Armenian grast loan found in Romani varieties, and is not assigned to the PIE h1ekwos set merely because Domari is Indo-European. Its more remote ancestry is not asserted.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Herin (2012), The Domari Language of Aleppo, p. 17: agor-es / agor-en from Indo-Aryan ghota; p. 2: Damascus community",
          "url": "https://journals.dartmouth.edu/journals/xmlpage/1/article/412?htmlOnce=yes"
        },
        {
          "title": "Herin (2016), Elements of Domari Dialectology, p. 46 table 7: northern (a)gora, southern gori",
          "url": "https://domari.org/wp-content/uploads/2026/08/bruno_herin_2016_elements_of_domari_dialectology_mediterranean_language_review_23.pdf"
        },
        {
          "title": "Matras and Kelzi (2024), The Dom language of Aleppo, pp. 9–10: agora in the authors transcription; pp. 4–5: diaspora and source-speaker limits",
          "url": "https://domari.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/matras-kelzi-2024-dom-language-of-aleppo-preliminary-sketch.pdf"
        }
      ]
    }
  ],
  "languages": [
    {
      "id": "eng",
      "name": "English",
      "native": "English",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Germanic · West Germanic",
      "word": "horse",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "germanic-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: horse (English)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/horse#English"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*hrussą"
        },
        {
          "label": "English",
          "form": "horse"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "sco",
      "name": "Scots",
      "native": "Scots",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Germanic · West Germanic",
      "word": "horse",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "germanic-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: horse (Scots)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/horse#Scots"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*hrussą"
        },
        {
          "label": "Scots",
          "form": "horse"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "deu",
      "name": "German",
      "native": "Deutsch",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Germanic · West Germanic",
      "word": "Pferd",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "post-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: Pferd (German)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Pferd#German"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "paraverēdus"
        },
        {
          "label": "German",
          "form": "Pferd"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "nld",
      "name": "Dutch",
      "native": "Nederlands",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Germanic · West Germanic",
      "word": "paard",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "post-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: paard (Dutch)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/paard#Dutch"
        },
        {
          "title": "Vlaams Woordenboek: peerd, with peird and regional pronunciation variants",
          "url": "https://www.vlaamswoordenboek.be/woordenboek-artikel/10184"
        },
        {
          "title": "Vlaams Woordenboek: peird, with Antwerp, Hageland and other regional forms",
          "url": "https://www.vlaamswoordenboek.be/woordenboek-artikel/4021"
        },
        {
          "title": "Devos and Vandekerckhove, West-Vlaams: regional peerd forms",
          "url": "https://dev.dialectloket.be/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/devo007west01_01.pdf"
        },
        {
          "title": "CNRS MoDyCo, Entrelangues: West Flemish, minority use and French dominance",
          "url": "https://entrelangues.modyco.fr/index.php/Flamand_occidental"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "Paard is the standard Dutch form. In Flanders, peerd, peird and further local forms are documented. A separate regional label shows peerd / peird without inventing a uniform Flemish dialect boundary; these words share the paraverēdus history. French Flanders is no longer painted as a continuous Dutch/Flemish area: French is dominant there. A separate French Flemish minority reference point preserves the regional word without asserting a majority-language territory.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "paraverēdus"
        },
        {
          "label": "Dutch",
          "form": "paard"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "fry",
      "name": "West Frisian",
      "native": "Frysk",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Germanic · West Germanic",
      "word": "hynder",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "germanic-stallion",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: hynder (West Frisian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hynder#West_Frisian"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "Hynder combines hynst (stallion, cognate with the hest set) and dier (animal). The full word is a Frisian compound.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*hangistaz"
        },
        {
          "label": "West Frisian",
          "form": "hynder"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "ltz",
      "name": "Luxembourgish",
      "native": "Lëtzebuergesch",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Germanic · West Germanic",
      "word": "Päerd",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "post-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: Päerd (Luxembourgish)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/P%C3%A4erd#Luxembourgish"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "paraverēdus"
        },
        {
          "label": "Luxembourgish",
          "form": "Päerd"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "dan",
      "name": "Danish",
      "native": "Dansk",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Germanic · North Germanic",
      "word": "hest",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "germanic-stallion",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: hest (Danish)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hest#Danish"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*hangistaz"
        },
        {
          "label": "Danish",
          "form": "hest"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "swe",
      "name": "Swedish",
      "native": "Svenska",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Germanic · North Germanic",
      "word": "häst",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "germanic-stallion",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: häst (Swedish)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/h%C3%A4st#Swedish"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*hangistaz"
        },
        {
          "label": "Swedish",
          "form": "häst"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "nor",
      "name": "Norwegian",
      "native": "Norsk",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Germanic · North Germanic",
      "word": "hest",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "germanic-stallion",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: hest (Norwegian Bokmål)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hest#Norwegian_Bokmål"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*hangistaz"
        },
        {
          "label": "Norwegian",
          "form": "hest"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "isl",
      "name": "Icelandic",
      "native": "Íslenska",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Germanic · North Germanic",
      "word": "hestur",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "germanic-stallion",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: hestur (Icelandic)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hestur#Icelandic"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*hangistaz"
        },
        {
          "label": "Icelandic",
          "form": "hestur"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "fao",
      "name": "Faroese",
      "native": "Føroyskt",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Germanic · North Germanic",
      "word": "hestur",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "germanic-stallion",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: hestur (Faroese)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hestur#Faroese"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*hangistaz"
        },
        {
          "label": "Faroese",
          "form": "hestur"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "spa",
      "name": "Spanish",
      "native": "Español",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Italic · Romance",
      "word": "caballo",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "caballus",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: caballo (Spanish)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/caballo#Spanish"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "caballus / *kaballos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Spanish",
          "form": "caballo"
        }
      ],
      "etymologyBranch": "caballus-romance"
    },
    {
      "id": "por",
      "name": "Portuguese",
      "native": "Português",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Italic · Romance",
      "word": "cavalo",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "caballus",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: cavalo (Portuguese)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cavalo#Portuguese"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "caballus / *kaballos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Portuguese",
          "form": "cavalo"
        }
      ],
      "etymologyBranch": "caballus-romance"
    },
    {
      "id": "glg",
      "name": "Galician",
      "native": "Galego",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Italic · Romance",
      "word": "cabalo",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "caballus",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: cabalo (Galician)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cabalo#Galician"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "caballus / *kaballos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Galician",
          "form": "cabalo"
        }
      ],
      "etymologyBranch": "caballus-romance"
    },
    {
      "id": "cat",
      "name": "Catalan",
      "native": "Català",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Italic · Romance",
      "word": "cavall",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "caballus",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: cavall (Catalan)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cavall#Catalan"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "caballus / *kaballos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Catalan",
          "form": "cavall"
        }
      ],
      "etymologyBranch": "caballus-romance"
    },
    {
      "id": "oci",
      "name": "Occitan",
      "native": "Occitan",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Italic · Romance",
      "word": "caval",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "caballus",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: caval (Occitan)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/caval#Occitan"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "caballus / *kaballos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Occitan",
          "form": "caval"
        }
      ],
      "etymologyBranch": "caballus-romance"
    },
    {
      "id": "ita",
      "name": "Italian",
      "native": "Italiano",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Italic · Romance",
      "word": "cavallo",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "caballus",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: cavallo (Italian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cavallo#Italian"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "caballus / *kaballos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Italian",
          "form": "cavallo"
        }
      ],
      "etymologyBranch": "caballus-romance"
    },
    {
      "id": "scn",
      "name": "Sicilian",
      "native": "Sicilianu",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Italic · Romance",
      "word": "cavaddu",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "caballus",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: cavaddu (Sicilian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cavaddu#Sicilian"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "caballus / *kaballos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Sicilian",
          "form": "cavaddu"
        }
      ],
      "etymologyBranch": "caballus-romance"
    },
    {
      "id": "srd",
      "name": "Sardinian (Nuorese reference)",
      "native": "Sardu",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Italic · Romance",
      "word": "cabaddu",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "caballus",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: cabaddu, Nuorese form; Campidanese cuaddu and other regional variants",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cabaddu"
        },
        {
          "title": "Sardinian regional cultural portal: cuaddu in Quartu Sant’Elena usage",
          "url": "https://www.sardegnacultura.it/sc/articulu/celebrazioni-in-onore-di-sant-elena-a-quartu-sant-elena"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "Cabaddu is a Nuorese reference, not a uniform island-wide form. Campidanese cuaddu is separately labelled in southern Sardinia; caddu, cavaddu and other forms also occur. These variants share the Latin caballus history.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "caballus / *kaballos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Sardinian",
          "form": "cabaddu"
        }
      ],
      "etymologyBranch": "caballus-romance",
      "mapAnchor": [
        9.0,
        40.6
      ],
      "mapSize": 17
    },
    {
      "id": "vec",
      "name": "Venetian",
      "native": "Vèneto",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Italic · Romance",
      "word": "cavało",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "caballus",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: cavało (Venetan)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cava%C5%82o#Venetan"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "caballus / *kaballos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Venetian",
          "form": "cavało"
        }
      ],
      "etymologyBranch": "caballus-romance"
    },
    {
      "id": "fur",
      "name": "Friulian",
      "native": "Furlan",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Italic · Romance",
      "word": "cjaval",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "caballus",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: cjaval (Friulian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cjaval#Friulian"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "caballus / *kaballos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Friulian",
          "form": "cjaval"
        }
      ],
      "etymologyBranch": "caballus-romance"
    },
    {
      "id": "roh",
      "name": "Romansh",
      "native": "Rumantsch",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Italic · Romance",
      "word": "chaval",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "caballus",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: chaval (Romansh)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/chaval#Romansh"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "caballus / *kaballos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Romansh",
          "form": "chaval"
        }
      ],
      "etymologyBranch": "caballus-romance"
    },
    {
      "id": "ast",
      "name": "Asturian",
      "native": "Asturianu",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Italic · Romance",
      "word": "caballu",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "caballus",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: caballu (Asturian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/caballu#Asturian"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "caballus / *kaballos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Asturian",
          "form": "caballu"
        }
      ],
      "etymologyBranch": "caballus-romance"
    },
    {
      "id": "arg",
      "name": "Aragonese",
      "native": "Aragonés",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Italic · Romance",
      "word": "caballo",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "caballus",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: caballo (Aragonese)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/caballo#Aragonese"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "caballus / *kaballos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Aragonese",
          "form": "caballo"
        }
      ],
      "etymologyBranch": "caballus-romance"
    },
    {
      "id": "fra",
      "name": "French",
      "native": "Français",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Italic · Romance",
      "word": "cheval",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "caballus",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: cheval (French)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cheval#French"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "caballus / *kaballos"
        },
        {
          "label": "French",
          "form": "cheval"
        }
      ],
      "etymologyBranch": "caballus-romance"
    },
    {
      "id": "ron",
      "name": "Romanian",
      "native": "Română",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Italic · Romance",
      "word": "cal",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "caballus",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: cal (Romanian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cal#Romanian"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "caballus / *kaballos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Romanian",
          "form": "cal"
        }
      ],
      "etymologyBranch": "caballus-romance",
      "mapAnchor": [
        23.8,
        44.8
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "rus",
      "name": "Russian",
      "native": "Русский",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Balto-Slavic · Slavic",
      "word": "лошадь",
      "romanization": "loshadʹ",
      "root": "russian-turkic",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: лошадь (Russian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8C#Russian"
        },
        {
          "title": "Gramota: конь, riding horse, male horse and poetic/specialist uses",
          "url": "https://gramota.ru/poisk?dicts%5B0%5D=48&mode=slovari&query=%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%8C&simple=0"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "Both лошадь and конь are Russian words. Лошадь is a common general noun; конь can mean a riding horse or male horse and is frequent in poetic, equestrian and military usage. The map shows both with their different Turkic-loan and inherited Slavic origins.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "лоша / alaša"
        },
        {
          "label": "Russian",
          "form": "лошадь"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "ukr",
      "name": "Ukrainian",
      "native": "Українська",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Balto-Slavic · Slavic",
      "word": "кінь",
      "romanization": "kinʹ",
      "root": "slavic-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: кінь (Ukrainian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%8C#Ukrainian"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*kòňь"
        },
        {
          "label": "Ukrainian",
          "form": "кінь"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "bel",
      "name": "Belarusian",
      "native": "Беларуская",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Balto-Slavic · Slavic",
      "word": "конь",
      "romanization": "konʹ",
      "root": "slavic-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: конь (Belarusian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%8C#Belarusian"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*kòňь"
        },
        {
          "label": "Belarusian",
          "form": "конь"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "pol",
      "name": "Polish",
      "native": "Polski",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Balto-Slavic · Slavic",
      "word": "koń",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "slavic-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: koń (Polish)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ko%C5%84#Polish"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*kòňь"
        },
        {
          "label": "Polish",
          "form": "koń"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "ces",
      "name": "Czech",
      "native": "Čeština",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Balto-Slavic · Slavic",
      "word": "kůň",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "slavic-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: kůň (Czech)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/k%C5%AF%C5%88#Czech"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*kòňь"
        },
        {
          "label": "Czech",
          "form": "kůň"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "slk",
      "name": "Slovak",
      "native": "Slovenčina",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Balto-Slavic · Slavic",
      "word": "kôň",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "slavic-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: kôň (Slovak)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/k%C3%B4%C5%88#Slovak"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*kòňь"
        },
        {
          "label": "Slovak",
          "form": "kôň"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "slv",
      "name": "Slovenian",
      "native": "Slovenščina",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Balto-Slavic · Slavic",
      "word": "konj",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "slavic-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: konj (Slovene)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/konj#Slovene"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*kòňь"
        },
        {
          "label": "Slovenian",
          "form": "konj"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "hbs",
      "name": "Serbian–Croatian–Bosnian",
      "native": "Srpski / hrvatski / bosanski",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Balto-Slavic · Slavic",
      "word": "konj / коњ",
      "romanization": "konj",
      "root": "slavic-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: konj (Serbo-Croatian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/konj#Serbo-Croatian"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "Konj / коњ are the Latin and Cyrillic spellings of the selected shared horse noun; they are not different etymologies.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*kòňь"
        },
        {
          "label": "Serbian–Croatian–Bosnian",
          "form": "konj / коњ"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "bul",
      "name": "Bulgarian",
      "native": "Български",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Balto-Slavic · Slavic",
      "word": "кон",
      "romanization": "kon",
      "root": "slavic-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: кон (Bulgarian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD#Bulgarian"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*kòňь"
        },
        {
          "label": "Bulgarian",
          "form": "кон"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "mkd",
      "name": "Macedonian",
      "native": "Македонски",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Balto-Slavic · Slavic",
      "word": "коњ",
      "romanization": "konj",
      "root": "slavic-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: коњ (Macedonian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%9A#Macedonian"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*kòňь"
        },
        {
          "label": "Macedonian",
          "form": "коњ"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "hsb",
      "name": "Upper Sorbian",
      "native": "Hornjoserbšćina",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Balto-Slavic · Slavic",
      "word": "kóń",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "slavic-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: kóń (Upper Sorbian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/k%C3%B3%C5%84#Upper_Sorbian"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*kòňь"
        },
        {
          "label": "Upper Sorbian",
          "form": "kóń"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "dsb",
      "name": "Lower Sorbian",
      "native": "Dolnoserbšćina",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Balto-Slavic · Slavic",
      "word": "kóń",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "slavic-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: kóń (Lower Sorbian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/k%C3%B3%C5%84#Lower_Sorbian"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*kòňь"
        },
        {
          "label": "Lower Sorbian",
          "form": "kóń"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "csb",
      "name": "Kashubian",
      "native": "Kaszëbsczi",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Balto-Slavic · Slavic",
      "word": "kóń",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "slavic-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: kóń (Kashubian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/k%C3%B3%C5%84#Kashubian"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*kòňь"
        },
        {
          "label": "Kashubian",
          "form": "kóń"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "lit",
      "name": "Lithuanian",
      "native": "Lietuvių",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Balto-Slavic · Baltic",
      "word": "arklys",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "lithuanian-plough",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: arklys (Lithuanian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/arklys#Lithuanian"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "arklas → arklys"
        },
        {
          "label": "Lithuanian",
          "form": "arklys"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "lav",
      "name": "Latvian",
      "native": "Latviešu",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Balto-Slavic · Baltic",
      "word": "zirgs",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "baltic-steed",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: zirgs (Latvian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/zirgs#Latvian"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*źirˀgás"
        },
        {
          "label": "Latvian",
          "form": "zirgs"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "gle",
      "name": "Irish",
      "native": "Gaeilge",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Celtic · Goidelic",
      "word": "capall",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "caballus",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: capall (Irish)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/capall#Irish"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "The common capall is selected. Irish each is another horse noun and belongs to the PIE *h₁éḱwos set, as does Scottish Gaelic each.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "caballus / *kaballos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Irish",
          "form": "capall"
        }
      ],
      "etymologyBranch": "caballus-celtic"
    },
    {
      "id": "gla",
      "name": "Scottish Gaelic",
      "native": "Gàidhlig",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Celtic · Goidelic",
      "word": "each",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "pie-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: each (Scottish Gaelic)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/each#Scottish_Gaelic"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "Each is the selected common Scottish Gaelic horse noun; it continues Old Irish ech and PIE *h₁éḱwos.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Proto-Indo-European",
          "form": "*h₁éḱwos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Proto-Celtic",
          "form": "*ekʷos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Old Irish",
          "form": "ech"
        },
        {
          "label": "Scottish Gaelic",
          "form": "each"
        }
      ],
      "etymologyBranch": "pie-celtic"
    },
    {
      "id": "glv",
      "name": "Manx",
      "native": "Gaelg",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Celtic · Goidelic",
      "word": "cabbyl",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "caballus",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: cabbyl (Manx)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cabbyl#Manx"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "caballus / *kaballos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Manx",
          "form": "cabbyl"
        }
      ],
      "etymologyBranch": "caballus-celtic"
    },
    {
      "id": "cym",
      "name": "Welsh",
      "native": "Cymraeg",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Celtic · Brythonic",
      "word": "ceffyl",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "caballus",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: ceffyl (Welsh)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ceffyl#Welsh"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "Ceffyl belongs to the caballos word-family; its Celtic stages are not represented as simple inheritance from Latin.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "caballus / *kaballos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Welsh",
          "form": "ceffyl"
        }
      ],
      "etymologyBranch": "caballus-celtic"
    },
    {
      "id": "bre",
      "name": "Breton",
      "native": "Brezhoneg",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Celtic · Brythonic",
      "word": "marc’h",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "celtic-markos",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: marc’h (Breton)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/marc%27h#Breton"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*markos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Breton",
          "form": "marc’h"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "cor",
      "name": "Cornish",
      "native": "Kernewek",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Celtic · Brythonic",
      "word": "margh",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "celtic-markos",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: margh (Cornish)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/margh#Cornish"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*markos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Cornish",
          "form": "margh"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "ell",
      "name": "Greek",
      "native": "Ελληνικά",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Hellenic",
      "word": "άλογο",
      "romanization": "álogo",
      "root": "greek-speechless",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: άλογο (Greek)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%AC%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%BF#Greek"
        },
        {
          "title": "Centre for the Greek Language: Triantafyllidis, ιππο- and learned compounds",
          "url": "https://www.greek-language.gr/greekLang/modern_greek/tools/lexica/search.html?lq=%CE%B9%CF%80%CF%80%CE%BF"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "Άλογο (álogo) is the everyday horse word. The learned ίππος (íppos), historically Ancient Greek ἵππος (híppos), remains relevant in compounds, names and technical vocabulary. Both are now shown; they follow different etymological routes.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "álogos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Greek",
          "form": "άλογο"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "hye",
      "name": "Armenian",
      "native": "Հայերեն",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Armenian",
      "word": "ձի",
      "romanization": "dzi",
      "root": "armenian-steed",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: ձի (Armenian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D5%B1%D5%AB#Armenian"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented. Eastern Armenian reading dzi; scholarly transliteration ji; Western Armenian pronunciation differs.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*ǵʰéyos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Armenian",
          "form": "ձի"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "sqi",
      "name": "Albanian",
      "native": "Shqip",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Albanian",
      "word": "kalë",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "caballus",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: kalë (Albanian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/kal%C3%AB#Albanian"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "caballus / *kaballos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Albanian",
          "form": "kalë"
        }
      ],
      "etymologyBranch": "caballus-albanian"
    },
    {
      "id": "pes",
      "name": "Persian",
      "native": "فارسی",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Indo-Iranian · Iranian",
      "word": "اسب",
      "romanization": "asb",
      "root": "pie-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: اسب (Persian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A8#Persian"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Proto-Indo-European",
          "form": "*h₁éḱwos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Proto-Indo-Iranian",
          "form": "*Háćwas"
        },
        {
          "label": "Proto-Iranian",
          "form": "*Hácwah"
        },
        {
          "label": "Persian",
          "form": "اسب"
        }
      ],
      "etymologyBranch": "pie-iranian"
    },
    {
      "id": "kmr",
      "name": "Northern Kurdish",
      "native": "Kurmancî",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Indo-Iranian · Iranian",
      "word": "hesp",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "pie-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: hesp (Northern Kurdish)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hesp#Northern_Kurdish"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Proto-Indo-European",
          "form": "*h₁éḱwos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Proto-Indo-Iranian",
          "form": "*Háćwas"
        },
        {
          "label": "Proto-Iranian",
          "form": "*Hácwah"
        },
        {
          "label": "Northern Kurdish",
          "form": "hesp"
        }
      ],
      "etymologyBranch": "pie-iranian"
    },
    {
      "id": "oss",
      "name": "Ossetian",
      "native": "Ирон",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Indo-Iranian · Iranian",
      "word": "бӕх",
      "romanization": "bækh",
      "root": "ossetian-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: бӕх (Ossetian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B1%D3%95%D1%85#Ossetian"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "bæx"
        },
        {
          "label": "Ossetian",
          "form": "бӕх"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "fin",
      "name": "Finnish",
      "native": "Suomi",
      "family": "Uralic",
      "branch": "Finnic",
      "word": "hevonen",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "finnic-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: hevonen (Finnish)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hevonen#Finnish"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*hëpo"
        },
        {
          "label": "Finnish",
          "form": "hevonen"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "est",
      "name": "Estonian",
      "native": "Eesti",
      "family": "Uralic",
      "branch": "Finnic",
      "word": "hobune",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "finnic-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: hobune (Estonian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hobune#Estonian"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*hëpo"
        },
        {
          "label": "Estonian",
          "form": "hobune"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "krl",
      "name": "Karelian",
      "native": "Karjala",
      "family": "Uralic",
      "branch": "Finnic",
      "word": "hebo",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "finnic-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: hebo (Karelian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hebo#Karelian"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*hëpo"
        },
        {
          "label": "Karelian",
          "form": "hebo"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "vep",
      "name": "Veps",
      "native": "Vepsän kel'",
      "family": "Uralic",
      "branch": "Finnic",
      "word": "hebo",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "finnic-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: hebo (Veps)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hebo#Veps"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*hëpo"
        },
        {
          "label": "Veps",
          "form": "hebo"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "hun",
      "name": "Hungarian",
      "native": "Magyar",
      "family": "Uralic",
      "branch": "Ugric",
      "word": "ló",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "ugric-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: ló (Hungarian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/l%C3%B3#Hungarian"
        },
        {
          "title": "HUN-REN, Új magyar etimológiai szótár: ló, Ugric inheritance and Khanty/Mansi cognates",
          "url": "https://uesz.nytud.hu/index.html?uuid=c14ded34-7c44-1014-a8d2-ae24c20aeb7e"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented. Hungarian ló, with stem lov- as in plural lovak, is cognate with Khanty ԓов (Kazym łow) and Mansi forms. The common Ugric set does not establish a deeper Indo-European origin.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*luɣǝ"
        },
        {
          "label": "Hungarian",
          "form": "ló"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "sme",
      "name": "Northern Sámi",
      "native": "Davvisámegiella",
      "family": "Uralic",
      "branch": "Sámi",
      "word": "heasta",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "germanic-stallion",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Matsumoto Ryo, Horse in Uralic, p.147: Sámi heasta",
          "url": "https://geolinguistics.sakura.ne.jp/Monograph/SiG-mono3-LAAA-1-ebook.pdf"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*hangistaz"
        },
        {
          "label": "Northern Sámi",
          "form": "heasta"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "mhr",
      "name": "Meadow Mari",
      "native": "Олык марий",
      "family": "Uralic",
      "branch": "Mari",
      "word": "имне",
      "romanization": "imne",
      "root": "mari-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: имне (Eastern Mari)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BD%D0%B5#Eastern_Mari"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "imne / imni"
        },
        {
          "label": "Meadow Mari",
          "form": "имне"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "udm",
      "name": "Udmurt",
      "native": "Удмурт",
      "family": "Uralic",
      "branch": "Permic",
      "word": "вал",
      "romanization": "val",
      "root": "permic-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: вал (Udmurt)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BB#Udmurt"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*vɔ̇l"
        },
        {
          "label": "Udmurt",
          "form": "вал"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "eus",
      "name": "Basque",
      "native": "Euskara",
      "family": "Language isolate",
      "branch": "Basque",
      "word": "zaldi",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "basque-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: zaldi (Basque)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/zaldi#Basque"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "zaldi"
        },
        {
          "label": "Basque",
          "form": "zaldi"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "arb",
      "name": "Arabic (standard reference)",
      "native": "العربية",
      "family": "Afro-Asiatic",
      "branch": "Semitic · Arabic",
      "word": "حصان",
      "romanization": "ḥiṣān",
      "root": "arabic-hisan",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: حصان (Arabic)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B5%D8%A7%D9%86#Arabic"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented. North African backgrounds now use separate Moroccan, Libyan and Hassaniya references rather than this standard-Arabic label.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "ḥiṣān"
        },
        {
          "label": "Arabic (standard reference)",
          "form": "حصان"
        }
      ],
      "mapAnchor": [
        41,
        28.1
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "heb",
      "name": "Hebrew",
      "native": "עברית",
      "family": "Afro-Asiatic",
      "branch": "Semitic · Northwest Semitic",
      "word": "סוס",
      "romanization": "sus",
      "root": "semitic-sus",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: סוס (Hebrew)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A1#Hebrew"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "sūs / sūsyā"
        },
        {
          "label": "Hebrew",
          "form": "סוס"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "mlt",
      "name": "Maltese",
      "native": "Malti",
      "family": "Afro-Asiatic",
      "branch": "Semitic · Maltese",
      "word": "żiemel",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "maltese-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: żiemel (Maltese)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%C5%BCiemel#Maltese"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "zāmil"
        },
        {
          "label": "Maltese",
          "form": "żiemel"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "aeb",
      "name": "Tunisian Arabic",
      "native": "تونسي",
      "family": "Afro-Asiatic",
      "branch": "Semitic · Arabic",
      "word": "حصان",
      "romanization": "ḥṣān",
      "root": "arabic-hisan",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: حصان (Tunisian Arabic)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B5%D8%A7%D9%86#Tunisian_Arabic"
        },
        {
          "title": "Čéplö et al. (2016), Mutual intelligibility of spoken Maltese, Libyan Arabic and Tunisian Arabic, Appendix A W002C01",
          "url": "https://doi.org/10.1515/flin-2016-0021"
        },
        {
          "title": "Adam Benkato, author publication list linking the full Tunisia/Libya study, item 26",
          "url": "https://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~abenkato/publications.html"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "The Tunisia/Libya comparison experiment transcribes Tunisian ḥsān (without an emphatic s in that transcription), beside Benghazi Libyan ḥṣān. The map keeps the normalized Arabic citation spelling حصان and reading ḥṣān. This belongs to the existing ḥiṣān origin set; it should not be replaced throughout Tunisia by Algerian/Moroccan ʿawd.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "ḥiṣān"
        },
        {
          "label": "Tunisian Arabic",
          "form": "حصان"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "arz",
      "name": "Egyptian Arabic",
      "native": "مصري",
      "family": "Afro-Asiatic",
      "branch": "Semitic · Arabic",
      "word": "حصان",
      "romanization": "ḥoṣān",
      "root": "arabic-hisan",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: حصان (Egyptian Arabic)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B5%D8%A7%D9%86#Egyptian_Arabic"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "ḥiṣān"
        },
        {
          "label": "Egyptian Arabic",
          "form": "حصان"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "apc",
      "name": "Syrian Arabic",
      "native": "عربي سوري",
      "family": "Afro-Asiatic",
      "branch": "Semitic · Arabic",
      "word": "حصان",
      "romanization": "ḥṣān",
      "root": "arabic-hisan",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: horse (English)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/horse#English"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "Ḥṣān is a North Levantine/Syrian reference from the comparative translation list; local readings vary.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "ḥiṣān"
        },
        {
          "label": "Syrian Arabic",
          "form": "حصان"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "acm",
      "name": "Mesopotamian Arabic",
      "native": "عراقي",
      "family": "Afro-Asiatic",
      "branch": "Semitic · Arabic",
      "word": "حصان",
      "romanization": "ḥiṣān",
      "root": "arabic-hisan",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Iraqi Arabic reference: ḥṣān horse, with Standard Arabic citation comparison",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B5%D8%A7%D9%86#Arabic"
        },
        {
          "title": "AIDA16 Booklet of Abstracts (2026), Baghdadi Arabic plant names: il-ḥiṣān in horse-tail, p.60",
          "url": "https://aidacatania.unict.it/AIDA16_Booklet_of_Abstracts_09_06_2026_DEF.pdf"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "The reading ḥiṣān is also attested in the cited Baghdadi Arabic plant-name study (ḏēl il-ḥiṣān, horse’s tail). Other Iraqi dialects and local vowels vary; one label is a representative form, not an exhaustive dialect inventory.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "ḥiṣān"
        },
        {
          "label": "Mesopotamian Arabic",
          "form": "حصان"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "tur",
      "name": "Turkish",
      "native": "Türkçe",
      "family": "Turkic",
      "branch": "Common Turkic · Oghuz",
      "word": "at",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "turkic-at",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: at (Turkish)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/at#Turkish"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*at"
        },
        {
          "label": "Turkish",
          "form": "at"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "aze",
      "name": "Azerbaijani",
      "native": "Azərbaycanca",
      "family": "Turkic",
      "branch": "Common Turkic · Oghuz",
      "word": "at",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "turkic-at",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: at (Azerbaijani)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/at#Azerbaijani"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*at"
        },
        {
          "label": "Azerbaijani",
          "form": "at"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "kaz",
      "name": "Kazakh",
      "native": "Қазақша",
      "family": "Turkic",
      "branch": "Common Turkic · Kipchak",
      "word": "жылқы",
      "romanization": "zhylqy",
      "root": "turkic-livestock",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: жылқы (Kazakh)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B6%D1%8B%D0%BB%D2%9B%D1%8B#Kazakh"
        },
        {
          "title": "Sozdikqor / Қазақ әдеби тілінің сөздігі: ат, a male riding or working horse",
          "url": "https://sozdikqor.kz/soz?a=AT1&id=114416"
        },
        {
          "title": "Sozdikqor / Қазақ әдеби тілінің сөздігі: жылқы еті, horse meat",
          "url": "https://sozdikqor.kz/soz?a=Jylqy+eti&id=405726"
        },
        {
          "title": "Berdibek, Kazakh toponymic lexicon: жылқы as an equine livestock species",
          "url": "https://atau.kz/docs/3003.pdf"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "Жылқы is a general species / livestock term, including herd and husbandry contexts; жылқы еті means horse meat. Ат is especially a riding or working horse (traditionally a male / gelding). These are usage tendencies, not a strict edible-versus-ridable division, and жылқы is not restricted to animals raised for meat. Both forms are mapped, with separate *yïlkï and *at histories.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*yïlkï"
        },
        {
          "label": "Kazakh",
          "form": "жылқы"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "tat",
      "name": "Tatar",
      "native": "Татарча",
      "family": "Turkic",
      "branch": "Common Turkic · Kipchak",
      "word": "ат",
      "romanization": "at",
      "root": "turkic-at",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: ат (Tatar)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B0%D1%82#Tatar"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*at"
        },
        {
          "label": "Tatar",
          "form": "ат"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "bak",
      "name": "Bashkir",
      "native": "Башҡортса",
      "family": "Turkic",
      "branch": "Common Turkic · Kipchak",
      "word": "ат",
      "romanization": "at",
      "root": "turkic-at",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: ат (Bashkir)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B0%D1%82#Bashkir"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*at"
        },
        {
          "label": "Bashkir",
          "form": "ат"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "crh",
      "name": "Crimean Tatar",
      "native": "Qırımtatarca",
      "family": "Turkic",
      "branch": "Common Turkic · Kipchak",
      "word": "at",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "turkic-at",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: at (Crimean Tatar)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/at#Crimean_Tatar"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*at"
        },
        {
          "label": "Crimean Tatar",
          "form": "at"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "kir",
      "name": "Kyrgyz",
      "native": "Кыргызча",
      "family": "Turkic",
      "branch": "Common Turkic · Kipchak",
      "word": "ат",
      "romanization": "at",
      "root": "turkic-at",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: ат (Kyrgyz)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B0%D1%82#Kyrgyz"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*at"
        },
        {
          "label": "Kyrgyz",
          "form": "ат"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "uzb",
      "name": "Uzbek",
      "native": "Oʻzbekcha",
      "family": "Turkic",
      "branch": "Common Turkic · Karluk",
      "word": "ot",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "turkic-at",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: horse (English)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/horse#English"
        },
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: Reconstruction:Proto-Turkic/at",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction%3AProto-Turkic%2Fat"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*at"
        },
        {
          "label": "Uzbek",
          "form": "ot"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "kat",
      "name": "Georgian",
      "native": "ქართული",
      "family": "Kartvelian",
      "branch": "Georgian",
      "word": "ცხენი",
      "romanization": "tskheni",
      "root": "kartvelian-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: ცხენი (Georgian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%83%AA%E1%83%AE%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98#Georgian"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*cxen-"
        },
        {
          "label": "Georgian",
          "form": "ცხენი"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "kab",
      "name": "Kabyle",
      "native": "Taqbaylit",
      "family": "Afro-Asiatic",
      "branch": "Berber · Kabyle",
      "word": "aɛudiw",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "arabic-awd",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Centre de Recherche Berbère, Aures: comparison of Chaoui yis and Kabyle aɛudiw",
          "url": "https://centrederechercheberbere.fr/aures.html"
        },
        {
          "title": "Amawal, Kabyle dictionary: aɛawdiw / aɛudiw",
          "url": "https://amawal.numidya.net/amawal/a/Goi4tKpe/a%C9%9Bawdiw"
        },
        {
          "title": "Kossmann (2013), The Arabic Influence on Northern Berber, pp. 149–150: horse words and Arabic loans",
          "url": "https://amyaz.fr/uploads/66db4e13ca98e.pdf"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "Kabyle aɛudiw / aɛawḏiw is an Arabic loan according to Kossmann (2013, pp. 149–150), from Maghrebi ɛǝwd(a). It shares the Algerian/Moroccan Arabic origin colour; it is not assigned to inherited Berber ayis simply because the language is Berber.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Maghrebi Arabic",
          "form": "ɛǝwd(a)"
        },
        {
          "label": "Kabyle loan",
          "form": "aɛawḏiw / aɛudiw"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "tzm",
      "name": "Central Atlas Tamazight",
      "native": "Tamaziɣt",
      "family": "Afro-Asiatic",
      "branch": "Berber · Atlas",
      "word": "ⴰⵢⵉⵙ",
      "romanization": "ayis",
      "root": "berber-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: ⴰⵢⵉⵙ (Central Atlas Tamazight)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%A2%E2%B5%89%E2%B5%99#Central_Atlas_Tamazight"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "Ayis is selected; ayyis and yis are recorded variants. The Tifinagh spelling follows the cited Central Atlas Tamazight entry.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "ayis / ayyis"
        },
        {
          "label": "Central Atlas Tamazight",
          "form": "ⴰⵢⵉⵙ"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "shi",
      "name": "Tachelhit",
      "native": "Tašlḥiyt",
      "family": "Afro-Asiatic",
      "branch": "Berber · Atlas",
      "word": "ayyis",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "berber-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: ayyis (Tashelhit)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ayyis#Tashelhit"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "ayis / ayyis"
        },
        {
          "label": "Tachelhit",
          "form": "ayyis"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "che",
      "name": "Chechen",
      "native": "Нохчийн",
      "family": "Northeast Caucasian",
      "branch": "Nakh",
      "word": "говр",
      "romanization": "govr",
      "root": "nakh-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: говр (Chechen)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%80#Chechen"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*gabr"
        },
        {
          "label": "Chechen",
          "form": "говр"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "tuk",
      "name": "Turkmen",
      "native": "Turkmen",
      "family": "Turkic",
      "branch": "Common Turkic · Oghuz",
      "word": "at",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "turkic-at",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: at (Turkmen)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/at#Turkmen"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*at"
        },
        {
          "label": "Turkmen",
          "form": "at"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "kpv",
      "name": "Komi-Zyrian",
      "native": "Komi-Zyrian",
      "family": "Uralic",
      "branch": "Permic · Komi",
      "word": "вӧв",
      "romanization": "vöv",
      "root": "permic-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: вӧв (Komi-Zyrian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B2%D3%A7%D0%B2#Komi-Zyrian"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*vɔ̇l"
        },
        {
          "label": "Komi-Zyrian",
          "form": "вӧв"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "yrk",
      "name": "Tundra Nenets",
      "native": "Tundra Nenets",
      "family": "Uralic",
      "branch": "Samoyedic · Nenets",
      "word": "юно",
      "romanization": "yuno",
      "root": "nenets-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "COPIUS Samoyedic historical phonology: NenT juna, juno",
          "url": "https://copius.univie.ac.at/etymology/slides_13_samo.pdf"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*juntå"
        },
        {
          "label": "Tundra Nenets",
          "form": "юно"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "ava",
      "name": "Avar",
      "native": "Avar",
      "family": "Northeast Caucasian",
      "branch": "Avar-Andic · Avar",
      "word": "чу",
      "romanization": "chu",
      "root": "avar-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: чу (Avar)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D1%87%D1%83#Avar"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "The listed early Indo-Iranian etymology is a proposal, not sufficient evidence for automatically merging every Caucasian horse word with the PIE set.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "ču"
        },
        {
          "label": "Avar",
          "form": "чу"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "dar",
      "name": "Dargwa",
      "native": "Dargwa",
      "family": "Northeast Caucasian",
      "branch": "Dargwa",
      "word": "урчи",
      "romanization": "urchi",
      "root": "dargwa-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: урчи (Dargwa)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D1%83%D1%80%D1%87%D0%B8#Dargwa"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "urči"
        },
        {
          "label": "Dargwa",
          "form": "урчи"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "lez",
      "name": "Lezgian",
      "native": "Lezgian",
      "family": "Northeast Caucasian",
      "branch": "Lezgic · Lezgian",
      "word": "шив",
      "romanization": "shiv",
      "root": "lezgian-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: шив (Lezgi)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%B2#Lezgi"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "šiv"
        },
        {
          "label": "Lezgian",
          "form": "шив"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "lbe",
      "name": "Lak",
      "native": "Lak",
      "family": "Northeast Caucasian",
      "branch": "Lak",
      "word": "чву",
      "romanization": "chvu",
      "root": "lak-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: чву (Lak)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D1%87%D0%B2%D1%83#Lak"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "čvu"
        },
        {
          "label": "Lak",
          "form": "чву"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "inh",
      "name": "Ingush",
      "native": "Ingush",
      "family": "Northeast Caucasian",
      "branch": "Nakh",
      "word": "говр",
      "romanization": "govr",
      "root": "nakh-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: говр (Ingush)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%80#Ingush"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*gabr"
        },
        {
          "label": "Ingush",
          "form": "говр"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "kbd",
      "name": "Kabardian",
      "native": "Kabardian",
      "family": "Northwest Caucasian",
      "branch": "Circassian · East Circassian",
      "word": "шы",
      "romanization": "shy",
      "root": "circassian-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: шы (Kabardian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D1%88%D1%8B#East_Circassian"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*čǝ"
        },
        {
          "label": "Kabardian",
          "form": "шы"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "ady",
      "name": "Adyghe",
      "native": "Adyghe",
      "family": "Northwest Caucasian",
      "branch": "Circassian · West Circassian",
      "word": "шы",
      "romanization": "shy",
      "root": "circassian-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: шы (Adyghe)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D1%88%D1%8B#West_Circassian"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*čǝ"
        },
        {
          "label": "Adyghe",
          "form": "шы"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "krc",
      "name": "Karachay-Balkar",
      "native": "Karachay-Balkar",
      "family": "Turkic",
      "branch": "Common Turkic · Kipchak",
      "word": "ат",
      "romanization": "at",
      "root": "turkic-at",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary (Russian), ат: Karachay-Balkar horse noun",
          "url": "https://ru.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B0%D1%82#%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE-%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9"
        },
        {
          "title": "Ethnocultural study of ат, horse, in Karachay-Balkar phraseology",
          "url": "https://www.elbrusoid.net/articles/poznat/393388/"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*at"
        },
        {
          "label": "Karachay-Balkar",
          "form": "ат"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "kum",
      "name": "Kumyk",
      "native": "Kumyk",
      "family": "Turkic",
      "branch": "Common Turkic · Kipchak",
      "word": "ат",
      "romanization": "at",
      "root": "turkic-at",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: ат (Kumyk)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%B0%D1%82#Kumyk"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*at"
        },
        {
          "label": "Kumyk",
          "form": "ат"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "xal",
      "name": "Kalmyk",
      "native": "Kalmyk",
      "family": "Mongolic",
      "branch": "Oirat · Kalmyk",
      "word": "мөрн",
      "romanization": "mörn",
      "root": "mongolic-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: мөрн (Kalmyk)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%BC%D3%A9%D1%80%D0%BD#Kalmyk"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*morin"
        },
        {
          "label": "Kalmyk",
          "form": "мөрн"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "bal",
      "name": "Balochi",
      "native": "Balochi",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Indo-Iranian · Iranian",
      "word": "اسپ",
      "romanization": "asp",
      "root": "pie-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: اسپ (Baluchi)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%BE#Baluchi"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Proto-Indo-European",
          "form": "*h₁éḱwos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Proto-Indo-Iranian",
          "form": "*Háćwas"
        },
        {
          "label": "Proto-Iranian",
          "form": "*Hácwah"
        },
        {
          "label": "Balochi",
          "form": "اسپ"
        }
      ],
      "etymologyBranch": "pie-iranian"
    },
    {
      "id": "lrc",
      "name": "Northern Luri",
      "native": "Northern Luri",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Indo-Iranian · Southwestern Iranian",
      "word": "اسپ",
      "romanization": "asp",
      "root": "pie-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Northern Luri/Feyli speaker word comparison: اسپ = horse",
          "url": "https://lori-shomali.blogfa.com/post/36"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "Asp is attested in the linked Northern Luri/Feyli speaker comparison. This local source is less authoritative than a critical dictionary; spelling and subregional vowels vary.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Proto-Indo-European",
          "form": "*h₁éḱwos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Proto-Indo-Iranian",
          "form": "*Háćwas"
        },
        {
          "label": "Proto-Iranian",
          "form": "*Hácwah"
        },
        {
          "label": "Northern Luri",
          "form": "اسپ"
        }
      ],
      "etymologyBranch": "pie-iranian"
    },
    {
      "id": "luz",
      "name": "Southern Luri",
      "native": "Southern Luri",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Indo-Iranian · Southwestern Iranian",
      "word": "اسپ",
      "romanization": "asp",
      "root": "pie-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: 𐎠𐎿𐎱 (Old Persian)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%90%8E%A0%F0%90%8E%BF%F0%90%8E%B1#Old_Persian"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "The source records Southern Luri asp with Persian contact in the chain. Shared Iranian word ancestry does not settle direct inheritance versus later borrowing.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Proto-Indo-European",
          "form": "*h₁éḱwos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Proto-Indo-Iranian",
          "form": "*Háćwas"
        },
        {
          "label": "Proto-Iranian",
          "form": "*Hácwah"
        },
        {
          "label": "Southern Luri",
          "form": "اسپ"
        }
      ],
      "etymologyBranch": "pie-iranian"
    },
    {
      "id": "bqi",
      "name": "Bakhtiari",
      "native": "Bakhtiari",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Indo-Iranian · Southwestern Iranian",
      "word": "اسب",
      "romanization": "asb",
      "root": "pie-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Vajehyab, Bakhtiari dictionary: اسب /asb/",
          "url": "https://vajehyab.com/bakhtiari/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A8"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "The linked Bakhtiari dictionary records asb; asp also occurs in historical comparative lists. The selected noun uses the checked dictionary reading.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Proto-Indo-European",
          "form": "*h₁éḱwos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Proto-Indo-Iranian",
          "form": "*Háćwas"
        },
        {
          "label": "Proto-Iranian",
          "form": "*Hácwah"
        },
        {
          "label": "Bakhtiari",
          "form": "اسب"
        }
      ],
      "etymologyBranch": "pie-iranian"
    },
    {
      "id": "ckb",
      "name": "Central Kurdish",
      "native": "Central Kurdish",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Indo-Iranian · Iranian",
      "word": "ئەسپ",
      "romanization": "esp",
      "root": "pie-horse",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: ئەسپ (Central Kurdish)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%A6%DB%95%D8%B3%D9%BE#Central_Kurdish"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Proto-Indo-European",
          "form": "*h₁éḱwos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Proto-Indo-Iranian",
          "form": "*Háćwas"
        },
        {
          "label": "Proto-Iranian",
          "form": "*Hácwah"
        },
        {
          "label": "Central Kurdish",
          "form": "ئەسپ"
        }
      ],
      "etymologyBranch": "pie-iranian"
    },
    {
      "id": "kal",
      "name": "Greenlandic",
      "native": "Greenlandic",
      "family": "Inuit–Yupik–Unangan",
      "branch": "Inuit · Greenlandic",
      "word": "hiisti",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "germanic-stallion",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: hiisti (Greenlandic)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hiisti#Greenlandic"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A selected citation form for horse; regional synonyms and inflectional forms are not exhaustively represented.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*hangistaz"
        },
        {
          "label": "Greenlandic",
          "form": "hiisti"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "amw",
      "name": "Western Neo-Aramaic (Maaloula)",
      "family": "Afro-Asiatic",
      "branch": "Semitic · Western Aramaic",
      "mapPoint": true,
      "word": "ܣܘܣܬ̤ܐ",
      "romanization": "sūsča",
      "root": "semitic-sus",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Werner Arnold (2025), Animals in the Western Neo-Aramaic Proverbs of Maʿlūla, appendix: horse (sūsča)",
          "url": "https://books.openbookpublishers.com/10.11647/obp.0464.31.pdf"
        },
        {
          "title": "Western Neo-Aramaic writing systems: Syriac alphabet and ܬ̤ / č correspondence",
          "url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Neo-Aramaic#Syriac_and_Arabic_alphabet"
        },
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: Western Neo-Aramaic ܒܪܬ̤ܐ (berča), parallel use of ܬ̤ for č",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%DC%92%DC%AA%DC%AC%CC%A4%DC%90"
        },
        {
          "title": "Ma’luli New Testament (2018), Syriac and Arabic scripts; Revelation 6:2, printed p. 1274 (PDF p. 1282)",
          "url": "https://scriptureearth.org/data/amw/PDF/amwMaLuliNT-web.pdf#page=1282"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "Arnold’s 2025 Maaloula fieldwork appendix gives sūsča for horse. This map renders that attested pronunciation as ܣܘܣܬ̤ܐ in Syriac letters, using the documented Western Neo-Aramaic convention ܬ̤ for č. The complete Syriac spelling is an editorial transliteration, not a native-script quotation from Arnold or a claim of one universally standardized Maaloula orthography. The Maalouli New Testament also attests the related masculine sūsa in Syriac and Arabic scripts (Revelation 6:2, printed p. 1274); its form is not substituted for Arnold’s selected sūsča.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "sūs / sūsyā"
        },
        {
          "label": "Western Neo-Aramaic (Maaloula)",
          "form": "ܣܘܣܬ̤ܐ (sūsča)"
        }
      ],
      "mapRomanization": "sūsča",
      "script": "Syriac",
      "orthographyStatus": "Editorial Syriac-script rendering of an attested scholarly transcription"
    },
    {
      "id": "aii",
      "name": "Assyrian Neo-Aramaic",
      "family": "Afro-Asiatic",
      "branch": "Semitic · Northeastern Neo-Aramaic",
      "mapPoint": true,
      "word": "ܣܘܼܣܵܐ",
      "romanization": "sūsā",
      "root": "semitic-sus",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: ܣܘܣܐ (Assyrian Neo-Aramaic)",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%DC%A3%DC%98%DC%A3%DC%90#Assyrian_Neo-Aramaic"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "The Urmian reading sūsā and its pointed spelling are selected. Other Assyrian standards have sūsē; this is not a claim of one uniform pronunciation.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "sūs / sūsyā"
        },
        {
          "label": "Assyrian Neo-Aramaic",
          "form": "ܣܘܼܣܵܐ"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "tru",
      "name": "Turoyo / Surayt",
      "family": "Afro-Asiatic",
      "branch": "Semitic · Central Neo-Aramaic",
      "word": "ܣܘܣܝܐ",
      "romanization": "susyo",
      "root": "semitic-sus",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Barsky, Kalinin & Loesov (2018), The Basic Lexicon of Mlaḥsô: A Comparative Study, p.228, Turoyo susyo",
          "url": "https://www.ub.edu/ipoa/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/20182AuOrBarsky.pdf"
        },
        {
          "title": "Sfar Mele, Turoyo learning vocabulary: Horse (Pferd), Susyo",
          "url": "https://sfarmele.de/?page=lernen"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "The Turoyo reference is susyo, contrasted with Mlaḥsô in the comparative source. Syriac ܣܘܣܝܐ is shown unpointed; the reading underneath specifies the variety.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "sūs / sūsyā"
        },
        {
          "label": "Turoyo / Surayt",
          "form": "ܣܘܣܝܐ"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "myz",
      "name": "Mandaic (Mandaean liturgical reference)",
      "family": "Afro-Asiatic",
      "branch": "Semitic · Eastern Aramaic · Mandaic",
      "mapPoint": true,
      "word": "ࡎࡅࡎࡉࡀ",
      "romanization": "susia",
      "root": "semitic-sus",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Qais Al-Saadi (2012), Nhura dictionary, printed p.91: Horse [susia]",
          "url": "https://qadaha.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/nhura-dictionary-mandaic-english-mandaic.pdf#page=92"
        },
        {
          "title": "Glosbe, Mandaic Professional entry: ࡎࡅࡎࡉࡀ",
          "url": "https://glosbe.com/en/mid/horse"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "Literary/liturgical Mandaic reference near the historical Basra community, not a claim of uniform present-day everyday Mandaic speech in southern Iraq.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "sūs / sūsyā"
        },
        {
          "label": "Mandaic (Mandaean liturgical reference)",
          "form": "ࡎࡅࡎࡉࡀ"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Hellenic",
      "id": "ell-hippos",
      "name": "Greek (learned ίππος)",
      "word": "ίππος",
      "romanization": "íppos",
      "root": "pie-horse",
      "variantOf": "ell",
      "mapAnchor": [
        24.4,
        37.0
      ],
      "notes": "Modern learned ίππος continues Ancient Greek ἵππος (híppos), from PIE *h₁éḱwos. It appears in learned compounds such as ιππόδρομος and technical vocabulary; it supplements everyday άλογο. The poster uses the modern monotonic spelling and a letter-based romanization; Ancient Greek had initial h, while Modern Greek does not.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Centre for the Greek Language: Triantafyllidis, ιππο- and learned compounds",
          "url": "https://www.greek-language.gr/greekLang/modern_greek/tools/lexica/search.html?lq=%CE%B9%CF%80%CF%80%CE%BF"
        },
        {
          "title": "Centre for the Greek Language: Liddell–Scott, Ancient Greek ἵππος",
          "url": "https://www.greek-language.gr/digitalResources/ancient_greek/tools/liddell-scott/search.html?lq=%E1%BC%B5%CF%80%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%82"
        },
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: ίππος, Greek learned horse word and inherited ancestry",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%AF%CF%80%CF%80%CE%BF%CF%82#Greek"
        }
      ],
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Proto-Indo-European",
          "form": "*h₁éḱwos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Ancient Greek",
          "form": "ἵππος (híppos)"
        },
        {
          "label": "Learned Modern Greek",
          "form": "ίππος"
        }
      ],
      "etymologyBranch": "pie-greek",
      "mapSize": 20
    },
    {
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Italic · Romance",
      "id": "srd-cuaddu",
      "name": "Sardinian (Campidanese reference)",
      "word": "cuaddu",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "caballus",
      "variantOf": "srd",
      "mapAnchor": [
        8.9,
        39.45
      ],
      "notes": "Cuaddu is a southern Sardinian / Campidanese form of horse. It shares the caballus origin with Nuorese cabaddu. The word label is a regional reference; no new dialect boundary is invented.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: cabaddu, Nuorese form; Campidanese cuaddu and other regional variants",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cabaddu"
        },
        {
          "title": "Sardinian regional cultural portal: cuaddu in Quartu Sant’Elena usage",
          "url": "https://www.sardegnacultura.it/sc/articulu/celebrazioni-in-onore-di-sant-elena-a-quartu-sant-elena"
        }
      ],
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Latin",
          "form": "caballus"
        },
        {
          "label": "Campidanese Sardinian",
          "form": "cuaddu"
        }
      ],
      "mapSize": 17,
      "etymologyBranch": "caballus-romance"
    },
    {
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Balto-Slavic · Slavic",
      "id": "rus-kon",
      "name": "Russian (конь)",
      "word": "конь",
      "romanization": "konʹ",
      "root": "slavic-horse",
      "variantOf": "rus",
      "mapAnchor": [
        45.0,
        59.1
      ],
      "notes": "Both лошадь and конь are Russian words. Лошадь is a common general noun; конь can mean a riding horse or male horse and is frequent in poetic, equestrian and military usage. The map shows both with their different Turkic-loan and inherited Slavic origins.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Gramota: конь, riding horse, male horse and poetic/specialist uses",
          "url": "https://gramota.ru/poisk?dicts%5B0%5D=48&mode=slovari&query=%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%8C&simple=0"
        },
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: конь, inherited Slavic horse word",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%8C#Russian"
        }
      ],
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Proto-Slavic",
          "form": "*kòňь"
        },
        {
          "label": "Russian",
          "form": "конь"
        }
      ],
      "mapSize": 25
    },
    {
      "family": "Turkic",
      "branch": "Common Turkic · Kipchak",
      "id": "kaz-at",
      "name": "Kazakh (riding / working ат)",
      "word": "ат",
      "romanization": "at",
      "root": "turkic-at",
      "variantOf": "kaz",
      "mapAnchor": [
        62.1,
        46.2
      ],
      "notes": "Жылқы is a general species / livestock term, including herd and husbandry contexts; жылқы еті means horse meat. Ат is especially a riding or working horse (traditionally a male / gelding). These are usage tendencies, not a strict edible-versus-ridable division, and жылқы is not restricted to animals raised for meat. Both forms are mapped, with separate *yïlkï and *at histories.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Sozdikqor / Қазақ әдеби тілінің сөздігі: ат, a male riding or working horse",
          "url": "https://sozdikqor.kz/soz?a=AT1&id=114416"
        },
        {
          "title": "Sozdikqor / Қазақ әдеби тілінің сөздігі: жылқы еті, horse meat",
          "url": "https://sozdikqor.kz/soz?a=Jylqy+eti&id=405726"
        },
        {
          "title": "Berdibek, Kazakh toponymic lexicon: жылқы as an equine livestock species",
          "url": "https://atau.kz/docs/3003.pdf"
        }
      ],
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Proto-Turkic",
          "form": "*at"
        },
        {
          "label": "Kazakh",
          "form": "ат"
        }
      ],
      "mapSize": 25
    },
    {
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Germanic · West Germanic",
      "id": "nld-flemish",
      "name": "Flemish Dutch regional forms",
      "word": "peerd / peird",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "post-horse",
      "variantOf": "nld",
      "mapAnchor": [
        3.8,
        50.95
      ],
      "notes": "Paard is the standard Dutch form. In Flanders, peerd, peird and further local forms are documented. A separate regional label shows peerd / peird without inventing a uniform Flemish dialect boundary; these words share the paraverēdus history. French Flanders is no longer painted as a continuous Dutch/Flemish area: French is dominant there. A separate French Flemish minority reference point preserves the regional word without asserting a majority-language territory.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Vlaams Woordenboek: peerd, with peird and regional pronunciation variants",
          "url": "https://www.vlaamswoordenboek.be/woordenboek-artikel/10184"
        },
        {
          "title": "Vlaams Woordenboek: peird, with Antwerp, Hageland and other regional forms",
          "url": "https://www.vlaamswoordenboek.be/woordenboek-artikel/4021"
        },
        {
          "title": "Devos and Vandekerckhove, West-Vlaams: regional peerd forms",
          "url": "https://dev.dialectloket.be/wp-content/uploads/2014/05/devo007west01_01.pdf"
        },
        {
          "title": "CNRS MoDyCo, Entrelangues: West Flemish, minority use and French dominance",
          "url": "https://entrelangues.modyco.fr/index.php/Flamand_occidental"
        }
      ],
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Late Latin",
          "form": "paraverēdus"
        },
        {
          "label": "Middle Dutch",
          "form": "perert / pert"
        },
        {
          "label": "Flemish regional forms",
          "form": "peerd / peird"
        }
      ],
      "mapSize": 15,
      "mapPoint": true
    },
    {
      "id": "arq",
      "name": "Algerian Arabic",
      "native": "الدارجة الجزائرية",
      "family": "Afro-Asiatic",
      "branch": "Semitic · Arabic",
      "word": "عود",
      "romanization": "ʿūd",
      "root": "arabic-awd",
      "mapAnchor": [
        2.9,
        31.9
      ],
      "mapSize": 27,
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Lameen Souag (2002), The Algerian Arabic of Dellys: ʕud / ʕwad, horse, appendix p. 33",
          "url": "https://journals.uco.es/index.php/edna/article/download/8302/7778"
        },
        {
          "title": "Wiktionary: Algerian Arabic عود, from Arabic ʕawd, a camel trained for riding",
          "url": "https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%88%D8%AF#Algerian_Arabic"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "Vernacular عود (ʿūd; Arabizi 3oud) is the Algerian reference on this map. Souag records ʕud with plural ʕwad in Dellys; pronunciations and transcriptions vary, including ʕawd. The former standard-Arabic ḥiṣān fallback has been replaced within Algeria, while the independently mapped Berber language areas remain visible. This is a representative vernacular form, not an assertion that all Algerians use one word.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Earlier Arabic comparison",
          "form": "ʕawd — camel trained for riding"
        },
        {
          "label": "Algerian Arabic",
          "form": "عود (ʿūd)"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "family": "Uralic",
      "branch": "Ugric",
      "id": "hun-ro",
      "name": "Hungarian (Romania, Székely area)",
      "word": "ló",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "ugric-horse",
      "variantOf": "hun",
      "mapAnchor": [
        25.6,
        46.35
      ],
      "notes": "The same Hungarian word ló is labelled in the Székely area of Romania. Its new footprint is a census-derived supplement: Romanian administrative units with more than 50% Hungarian mother tongue among known-language responses in the 2021 census. Smaller border communities are retained separately; no continuous corridor from Hungary to the Székely enclave is asserted. Hungarian ló, with stem lov- as in plural lovak, is cognate with Khanty ԓов (Kazym łow) and Mansi forms. The common Ugric set does not establish a deeper Indo-European origin.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "ISPMN / Romanian INS: 2021 census mother-tongue map by administrative unit",
          "url": "https://www.ispmn.gov.ro/maps2022"
        },
        {
          "title": "HUN-REN, Új magyar etimológiai szótár: ló, Ugric inheritance and Khanty/Mansi cognates",
          "url": "https://uesz.nytud.hu/index.html?uuid=c14ded34-7c44-1014-a8d2-ae24c20aeb7e"
        }
      ],
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Proto-Ugric",
          "form": "*luɣǝ"
        },
        {
          "label": "Hungarian",
          "form": "ló"
        }
      ],
      "mapSize": 19
    },
    {
      "id": "kca",
      "name": "Khanty (Kazym word reference)",
      "native": "Ханты ясаӈ",
      "family": "Uralic",
      "branch": "Ugric",
      "word": "ԓов",
      "romanization": "łow",
      "root": "ugric-horse",
      "mapAnchor": [
        65.8,
        63.7
      ],
      "mapSize": 23,
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "V. N. Solovar 2014, Khanty–Russian Dictionary (Kazym dialect), p. 154: ԓов, horse",
          "url": "https://ouipiir.ru/sites/default/files/docs/635-1402.pdf"
        },
        {
          "title": "HUN-REN, Új magyar etimológiai szótár: ló, Ugric inheritance and Khanty/Mansi cognates",
          "url": "https://uesz.nytud.hu/index.html?uuid=c14ded34-7c44-1014-a8d2-ae24c20aeb7e"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "Solovar’s Kazym dictionary records ԓов, horse/stallion (p. 154). The reading łow is often simplified as lov. This is cognate with Hungarian ló / lov- and Mansi forms. Khanty varieties differ in their sounds and spellings; this label uses a Kazym citation form. The broad published Khanty footprint combines varieties and must not be read as a Kazym dialect boundary.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Ugric comparative set",
          "form": "*luɣǝ (also *luβɜ)"
        },
        {
          "label": "Khanty · Kazym",
          "form": "ԓов (łow)"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "vls-fr",
      "name": "French Flemish (minority reference)",
      "native": "Fransch Vlaemsch",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Germanic · West Germanic",
      "word": "peerd",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "post-horse",
      "mapAnchor": [
        2.454,
        50.936
      ],
      "mapSize": 14,
      "mapPoint": true,
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "ANVT–ILRF: French Flemish peerd in local usage (Quaëdypre)",
          "url": "https://anvt.org/vl/nieuws/55-nieuws-van-de-anvt?start=50"
        },
        {
          "title": "CNRS MoDyCo, Entrelangues: West Flemish, minority use and French dominance",
          "url": "https://entrelangues.modyco.fr/index.php/Flamand_occidental"
        },
        {
          "title": "French Ministry of Culture: regional languages, including West Flemish",
          "url": "https://www.culture.gouv.fr/thematiques/langue-francaise-et-langues-de-france/agir-pour-les-langues/promouvoir-les-langues-de-france/langues-regionales"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "A reference point at Quaëdypre in French Flanders represents surviving French Flemish use, not a majority-speaking enclave or an exclusive territorial boundary. ANVT–ILRF documents peerd in local usage. French is dominant in the region; older speaker-count estimates are uncertain and are not used to infer a precise modern speaker boundary.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Late Latin",
          "form": "paraverēdus"
        },
        {
          "label": "Middle Dutch",
          "form": "perert / pert"
        },
        {
          "label": "French Flemish",
          "form": "peerd"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "mns",
      "name": "Northern Mansi",
      "family": "Uralic",
      "branch": "Ugric",
      "word": "лув",
      "romanization": "luw",
      "root": "ugric-horse",
      "mapAnchor": [
        59.9716,
        62.3057
      ],
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Ob-Ugric Institute, short Mansi–Russian dictionary: лув, horse",
          "url": "https://mansy-audio-dic.ouipiir.ru/"
        },
        {
          "title": "HUN-REN, Új magyar etimológiai szótár: ló, inherited Ugric cognates",
          "url": "https://uesz.nytud.hu/index.html?uuid=c14ded34-7c44-1014-a8d2-ae24c20aeb7e"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "Northern Mansi лув, horse, is recorded by the Ob-Ugric Institute dictionary. It is cognate with Hungarian ló / lov- and Khanty ԓов. The source footprint is the published Northern Mansi atlas area; no new speaker boundary is inferred.",
      "mapSize": 23,
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*luɣǝ"
        },
        {
          "label": "Northern Mansi",
          "form": "лув"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "glk",
      "name": "Gilaki",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Indo-Iranian · Iranian",
      "word": "اسب",
      "romanization": "asb",
      "root": "pie-horse",
      "mapAnchor": [
        49.8934,
        37.2081
      ],
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Shabani and Taghipour (2023), Nominal linkers in Gilaki, pp. 2 and 5: Eshkevarat asb",
          "url": "https://twpl.library.utoronto.ca/index.php/twpl/article/download/41689/31976/112601"
        },
        {
          "title": "Mohammadreza Pourjafari, original Gilaki linguistic discussion: اَسب",
          "url": "https://baru.wiki/mohammadreza.pourjafari/neshane-ha-ye-masdari/"
        },
        {
          "title": "Ivanov (1999), Comparative Notes, PDF p. 36: Talysh, Gilyan and Mazandarani horse forms",
          "url": "https://urkesh.org/attach/Ivanov1999a.pdf#page=36"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "Selected asb form attested in Eshkevarat Gilaki; asp/asb varies regionally. The Persian-script display is normalized and corroborated by original Gilaki writing. The footprint is the atlas Gilaki umbrella area. Shared Iranian colour follows lexical history, including possible Iranian-internal borrowing.",
      "mapSize": 17,
      "etymologyBranch": "pie-iranian",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*h₁éḱwos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Gilaki",
          "form": "اسب"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "tly",
      "name": "Talyshi (Iranian word reference)",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Indo-Iranian · Iranian",
      "word": "اسب",
      "romanization": "asb",
      "root": "pie-horse",
      "mapAnchor": [
        48.8399,
        37.8729
      ],
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Taghipour and Nabati (2023), Nominal linkers in Taleshi, p. 9 example 29c: Pareh Sar asb",
          "url": "https://twpl.library.utoronto.ca/index.php/twpl/article/download/41688/31980/112605"
        },
        {
          "title": "Ivanov (1999), Comparative Notes, PDF p. 36: Talysh, Gilyan and Mazandarani horse forms",
          "url": "https://urkesh.org/attach/Ivanov1999a.pdf#page=36"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "Selected asb form attested in Pareh Sar, Iran. The unvowelled Persian-script display is an editorial normalization of the attested transcription. Asp occurs elsewhere in Talysh. The source atlas aggregate spans Iran and Azerbaijan and does not represent uniform dialect spelling or the exact range of the Pareh Sar variety.",
      "mapSize": 17,
      "etymologyBranch": "pie-iranian",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*h₁éḱwos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Talyshi (Iranian word reference)",
          "form": "اسب"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "mzn",
      "name": "Mazandarani",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Indo-Iranian · Iranian",
      "word": "اسب",
      "romanization": "asb",
      "root": "pie-horse",
      "mapAnchor": [
        52.5484,
        36.1268
      ],
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Cathcart (2015), Iranian Dialectology and Dialectometry, p. 135: Mazandarani asb",
          "url": "https://escholarship.org/content/qt77w684h2/qt77w684h2.pdf"
        },
        {
          "title": "Ivanov (1999), Comparative Notes, PDF p. 36: Talysh, Gilyan and Mazandarani horse forms",
          "url": "https://urkesh.org/attach/Ivanov1999a.pdf#page=36"
        },
        {
          "title": "Ali-Asghar Rostamnezhad Nashali, original Mazandarani proverbs using اسب",
          "url": "https://neshele.blogfa.com/post/20"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "Selected asb form with normalized Persian-script display. The source footprint combines Mazanderani and Galeshi atlas areas; it is not a uniform dialect survey. The common Iranian origin set does not settle individual dialect borrowing histories.",
      "mapSize": 18,
      "etymologyBranch": "pie-iranian",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "*h₁éḱwos"
        },
        {
          "label": "Mazandarani",
          "form": "اسب"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "ary",
      "name": "Moroccan Arabic",
      "family": "Afro-Asiatic",
      "branch": "Semitic · Arabic",
      "word": "عود",
      "romanization": "ʿawd",
      "root": "arabic-awd",
      "mapAnchor": [
        -7.4,
        33.4
      ],
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Darija Dictionary: عود, horse, with native audio",
          "url": "https://darijadictionary.com/en/index/horse-in-moroccan-arabic-darija/"
        },
        {
          "title": "Kossmann (2013), The Arabic Influence on Northern Berber, pp. 149–150: horse words and Arabic loans",
          "url": "https://amyaz.fr/uploads/66db4e13ca98e.pdf"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "Moroccan Darija عود, ʿawd, is a documented ordinary horse term. Thus Algeria is not unique in using this origin set. This is a vernacular reference rather than an exhaustive regional synonym inventory.",
      "mapSize": 23,
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "ʕawd"
        },
        {
          "label": "Moroccan Arabic",
          "form": "عود"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "ayl",
      "name": "Libyan Arabic (Benghazi reference)",
      "family": "Afro-Asiatic",
      "branch": "Semitic · Arabic",
      "word": "حصان",
      "romanization": "ḥṣān",
      "root": "arabic-hisan",
      "mapAnchor": [
        18,
        29.4
      ],
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Čéplö et al. (2016), Mutual intelligibility of spoken Maltese, Libyan Arabic and Tunisian Arabic, Appendix A W002C01",
          "url": "https://doi.org/10.1515/flin-2016-0021"
        },
        {
          "title": "Adam Benkato, author publication list linking the full Tunisia/Libya study, item 26",
          "url": "https://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~abenkato/publications.html"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "The comparison experiment records Benghazi ḥṣān. It is a documented eastern Libyan reference; the country background does not assert that every Libyan dialect uses the same form. Regional words and Berber languages remain separate.",
      "mapSize": 24,
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "ḥiṣān"
        },
        {
          "label": "Libyan Arabic (Benghazi reference)",
          "form": "حصان"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "mey",
      "name": "Hassaniya (written-word reference)",
      "family": "Afro-Asiatic",
      "branch": "Semitic · Arabic",
      "word": "فرس",
      "romanization": "frs",
      "root": "arabic-faras",
      "mapAnchor": [
        -10.7,
        27.25
      ],
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Peace Corps (1979), Hassaniya Arabic handbook, p. 249: written فرس, horse",
          "url": "https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED294423.pdf#page=269"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "The Peace Corps Hassaniya handbook records written فرس, horse, on p. 249. Frs transliterates only its consonants; exact local vowels and pronunciation remain unverified. This selected written-word reference is used for Western Sahara and the visible part of Mauritania; it is not a claim of uniform usage or a new linguistic border.",
      "mapSize": 21,
      "readingStatus": "consonantal transliteration; local vocalization unverified",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "faras"
        },
        {
          "label": "Hassaniya (written-word reference)",
          "form": "فرس"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "rif",
      "name": "Tarifiyt / Rif (inherited word)",
      "family": "Afro-Asiatic",
      "branch": "Berber",
      "word": "yis",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "berber-horse",
      "mapAnchor": [
        -3.1,
        35.16
      ],
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Kossmann, WOLD Tarifiyt: yis, horse, Common Berber; no evidence of borrowing",
          "url": "https://wold.clld.org/word/7212058936344482"
        },
        {
          "title": "Kossmann, WOLD Tarifiyt: akiđā, horse, coexisting Moroccan Arabic loan",
          "url": "https://wold.clld.org/word/7212059950182598"
        },
        {
          "title": "Kossmann (2013), The Arabic Influence on Northern Berber, pp. 149–150: horse words and Arabic loans",
          "url": "https://amyaz.fr/uploads/66db4e13ca98e.pdf"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "WOLD records yis as the inherited Common Berber horse word, without an archaic restriction. It also records coexisting akiđā, borrowed from Moroccan Arabic kid’ar, he-mule; that different origin is documented here but is not assigned the yis colour. This label selects the inherited word, not every regional synonym.",
      "mapSize": 17,
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "ayis / ayyis"
        },
        {
          "label": "Tarifiyt / Rif (inherited word)",
          "form": "yis"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "jbn",
      "name": "Nafusi",
      "family": "Afro-Asiatic",
      "branch": "Berber",
      "word": "agmár",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "berber-agmar",
      "mapAnchor": [
        12.3966,
        31.5019
      ],
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Marijn van Putten, Nefusa Text: The story of the wild animals, agmár, horse, analysing Beguinot 1942",
          "url": "https://orientalberber.wordpress.com/category/nefusa/"
        },
        {
          "title": "Kossmann (2013), The Arabic Influence on Northern Berber, pp. 149–150: horse words and Arabic loans",
          "url": "https://amyaz.fr/uploads/66db4e13ca98e.pdf"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "Agmár is explicitly glossed horse in Marijn van Putten’s analysis of the Nefusa text in Beguinot 1942. The attested scholarly Latin transcription is displayed. This is the GMR word set, distinct from ayis and Arabic loans.",
      "mapSize": 19,
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "agmar / aǧmar"
        },
        {
          "label": "Nafusi",
          "form": "agmár"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "jrb",
      "name": "Djerba Berber (Guellala reference)",
      "family": "Afro-Asiatic",
      "branch": "Berber",
      "word": "leḥṣan",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "arabic-hisan",
      "mapAnchor": [
        10.85,
        33.7
      ],
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Brugnatelli (2010), Guellala Djerba Berber dictionary manuscript, p. 28: leḥṣan",
          "url": "https://fr.scribd.com/document/369483266/Dictionnaire-Brugnatelli-Djerba-Berbere"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "Brugnatelli’s Guellala dictionary records leḥṣan, horse, plural leḥṣunnaḍ. This is an Arabic ḥṣān loan. The source’s Latin scholarly orthography is retained; e denotes schwa. The point identifies Guellala; no new exclusive village-language territory is asserted.",
      "mapPoint": true,
      "mapSize": 16,
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "ḥiṣān"
        },
        {
          "label": "Djerba Berber (Guellala reference)",
          "form": "leḥṣan"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "gha",
      "name": "Ghadames Berber",
      "family": "Afro-Asiatic",
      "branch": "Berber",
      "word": "aǧmar",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "berber-agmar",
      "mapAnchor": [
        9.5,
        30.13
      ],
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Kossmann (2013), The Arabic Influence on Northern Berber, pp. 149–150: horse words and Arabic loans",
          "url": "https://amyaz.fr/uploads/66db4e13ca98e.pdf"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "Kossmann (2013, p. 150) records Ghadames aǧmar. The attested Latin scholarly spelling is retained. This reference point has no newly invented language-area polygon.",
      "mapPoint": true,
      "mapSize": 18,
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Comparative origin set",
          "form": "agmar / aǧmar"
        },
        {
          "label": "Ghadames Berber",
          "form": "aǧmar"
        }
      ]
    },
    {
      "id": "rom-ro",
      "name": "Romani (grast reference; dispersed communities)",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Indo-Aryan",
      "word": "grast",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "romani-grast",
      "mapAnchor": [
        23.80958,
        46.58515
      ],
      "mapPoint": true,
      "mapSize": 19,
      "minorityLocations": [
        {
          "name": "Covăsinț",
          "county": "Arad",
          "sirsup": 10514,
          "anchor": [
            21.592,
            46.20715
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 689,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 29.63
        },
        {
          "name": "Șepreuș",
          "county": "Arad",
          "sirsup": 12224,
          "anchor": [
            21.72234,
            46.5629
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 582,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 22.42
        },
        {
          "name": "Corbasca",
          "county": "Bacău",
          "sirsup": 21971,
          "anchor": [
            27.13609,
            46.29315
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 2098,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 48.25
        },
        {
          "name": "Parava",
          "county": "Bacău",
          "sirsup": 24034,
          "anchor": [
            26.96427,
            46.30855
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 781,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 25.37
        },
        {
          "name": "Valea Seacă",
          "county": "Bacău",
          "sirsup": 26083,
          "anchor": [
            27.05916,
            46.25215
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 1358,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 41.67
        },
        {
          "name": "Buciumi",
          "county": "Bacău",
          "sirsup": 26338,
          "anchor": [
            26.7901,
            46.19295
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 698,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 22.19
        },
        {
          "name": "Avram Iancu",
          "county": "Bihor",
          "sirsup": 27285,
          "anchor": [
            21.52786,
            46.66415
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 690,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 25.12
        },
        {
          "name": "Batăr",
          "county": "Bihor",
          "sirsup": 27383,
          "anchor": [
            21.79749,
            46.7104
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 1564,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 35.04
        },
        {
          "name": "Husasău de Tinca",
          "county": "Bihor",
          "sirsup": 29662,
          "anchor": [
            21.89746,
            46.86245
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 784,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 35.06
        },
        {
          "name": "Ineu",
          "county": "Bihor",
          "sirsup": 29724,
          "anchor": [
            22.10142,
            47.1015
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 1558,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 35.99
        },
        {
          "name": "Lăzăreni",
          "county": "Bihor",
          "sirsup": 29813,
          "anchor": [
            22.05229,
            46.86015
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 1000,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 29.49
        },
        {
          "name": "Șoimi",
          "county": "Bihor",
          "sirsup": 31422,
          "anchor": [
            22.13689,
            46.65365
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 790,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 35.47
        },
        {
          "name": "Tinca",
          "county": "Bihor",
          "sirsup": 31789,
          "anchor": [
            21.90173,
            46.7592
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 1659,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 24.89
        },
        {
          "name": "Coșula",
          "county": "Botoșani",
          "sirsup": 39975,
          "anchor": [
            26.77614,
            47.60075
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 797,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 26.46
        },
        {
          "name": "Ormeniș",
          "county": "Brașov",
          "sirsup": 41541,
          "anchor": [
            25.52055,
            46.01065
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 629,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 31.93
        },
        {
          "name": "Calvini",
          "county": "Buzău",
          "sirsup": 45753,
          "anchor": [
            26.28141,
            45.24955
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 947,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 23.09
        },
        {
          "name": "Răcășdia",
          "county": "Caraș-Severin",
          "sirsup": 53675,
          "anchor": [
            21.5776,
            44.99665
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 536,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 29.76
        },
        {
          "name": "Ticvaniu Mare",
          "county": "Caraș-Severin",
          "sirsup": 54305,
          "anchor": [
            21.64039,
            45.1709
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 747,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 44.23
        },
        {
          "name": "Vărădia",
          "county": "Caraș-Severin",
          "sirsup": 54500,
          "anchor": [
            21.51586,
            45.0963
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 378,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 31.29
        },
        {
          "name": "Cojocna",
          "county": "Cluj",
          "sirsup": 57350,
          "anchor": [
            23.84243,
            46.73815
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 886,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 23.99
        },
        {
          "name": "Sânpaul",
          "county": "Cluj",
          "sirsup": 59586,
          "anchor": [
            23.39911,
            46.90345
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 443,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 20.76
        },
        {
          "name": "Cojasca",
          "county": "Dâmbovița",
          "sirsup": 66697,
          "anchor": [
            25.84412,
            44.71705
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 1494,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 22.58
        },
        {
          "name": "Amărăștii de Jos",
          "county": "Dolj",
          "sirsup": 70637,
          "anchor": [
            24.20112,
            43.92765
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 1552,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 32.99
        },
        {
          "name": "Bârca",
          "county": "Dolj",
          "sirsup": 70940,
          "anchor": [
            23.63726,
            43.9736
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 969,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 28.6
        },
        {
          "name": "Calopăr",
          "county": "Dolj",
          "sirsup": 71457,
          "anchor": [
            23.73624,
            44.1645
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 882,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 27.35
        },
        {
          "name": "Cerăt",
          "county": "Dolj",
          "sirsup": 71698,
          "anchor": [
            23.66231,
            44.0778
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 693,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 20.66
        },
        {
          "name": "Sadova",
          "county": "Dolj",
          "sirsup": 73996,
          "anchor": [
            23.96502,
            43.8815
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 1887,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 25.22
        },
        {
          "name": "Catane",
          "county": "Dolj",
          "sirsup": 74842,
          "anchor": [
            23.41981,
            43.9207
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 1136,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 62.04
        },
        {
          "name": "Coțofenii din Față",
          "county": "Dolj",
          "sirsup": 74875,
          "anchor": [
            23.65331,
            44.45105
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 718,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 36.86
        },
        {
          "name": "Brăhășești",
          "county": "Galați",
          "sirsup": 75766,
          "anchor": [
            27.35059,
            46.04775
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 5312,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 72.75
        },
        {
          "name": "Lungani",
          "county": "Iași",
          "sirsup": 97722,
          "anchor": [
            27.15079,
            47.1565
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 2598,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 44.49
        },
        {
          "name": "Bărcănești",
          "county": "Ialomița",
          "sirsup": 101056,
          "anchor": [
            26.65143,
            44.60355
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 820,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 24.54
        },
        {
          "name": "Sărulești",
          "county": "Călărași",
          "sirsup": 104886,
          "anchor": [
            26.64446,
            44.41665
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 677,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 24.07
        },
        {
          "name": "Gârla Mare",
          "county": "Mehedinți",
          "sirsup": 111783,
          "anchor": [
            22.77305,
            44.22455
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 1392,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 46.87
        },
        {
          "name": "Jiana",
          "county": "Mehedinți",
          "sirsup": 112548,
          "anchor": [
            22.72623,
            44.36875
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 751,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 20.76
        },
        {
          "name": "Punghina",
          "county": "Mehedinți",
          "sirsup": 113395,
          "anchor": [
            22.94798,
            44.30395
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 521,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 28.28
        },
        {
          "name": "Beica de Jos",
          "county": "Mureș",
          "sirsup": 115708,
          "anchor": [
            24.84369,
            46.71945
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 522,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 22.02
        },
        {
          "name": "Coroisânmărtin",
          "county": "Mureș",
          "sirsup": 116171,
          "anchor": [
            24.59481,
            46.39385
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 321,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 26.44
        },
        {
          "name": "Crăciunești",
          "county": "Mureș",
          "sirsup": 116288,
          "anchor": [
            24.57665,
            46.46335
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 842,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 21.52
        },
        {
          "name": "Fărăgău",
          "county": "Mureș",
          "sirsup": 116723,
          "anchor": [
            24.49939,
            46.7589
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 911,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 59.23
        },
        {
          "name": "Mica",
          "county": "Mureș",
          "sirsup": 118209,
          "anchor": [
            24.42097,
            46.3423
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 1311,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 28.1
        },
        {
          "name": "Ogra",
          "county": "Mureș",
          "sirsup": 118575,
          "anchor": [
            24.31829,
            46.44085
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 990,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 45.06
        },
        {
          "name": "Sânpaul",
          "county": "Mureș",
          "sirsup": 119466,
          "anchor": [
            24.37608,
            46.4489
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 1047,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 26.77
        },
        {
          "name": "Bahna",
          "county": "Neamț",
          "sirsup": 121153,
          "anchor": [
            26.78537,
            46.76225
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 544,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 21.21
        },
        {
          "name": "Grădinari",
          "county": "Olt",
          "sirsup": 127171,
          "anchor": [
            24.27299,
            44.56805
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 613,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 28.63
        },
        {
          "name": "Sângeru",
          "county": "Prahova",
          "sirsup": 135244,
          "anchor": [
            26.3443,
            45.13595
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 1133,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 23.55
        },
        {
          "name": "Socond",
          "county": "Satu Mare",
          "sirsup": 138869,
          "anchor": [
            23.0014,
            47.53665
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 1006,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 39.9
        },
        {
          "name": "Terebești",
          "county": "Satu Mare",
          "sirsup": 139054,
          "anchor": [
            22.75015,
            47.6712
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 414,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 23.21
        },
        {
          "name": "Tătărăștii de Sus",
          "county": "Teleorman",
          "sirsup": 154665,
          "anchor": [
            25.1266,
            44.4026
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 533,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 20.39
        },
        {
          "name": "Checea",
          "county": "Timiș",
          "sirsup": 159375,
          "anchor": [
            20.83251,
            45.7202
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 775,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 36.98
        },
        {
          "name": "Murgeni",
          "county": "Vaslui",
          "sirsup": 164981,
          "anchor": [
            28.00797,
            46.1989
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 1630,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 28.17
        },
        {
          "name": "Slobozia Bradului",
          "county": "Vrancea",
          "sirsup": 177655,
          "anchor": [
            27.04003,
            45.48125
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 6992,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 84.67
        },
        {
          "name": "Borănești",
          "county": "Ialomița",
          "sirsup": 179784,
          "anchor": [
            26.59083,
            44.64265
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 666,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 30.01
        },
        {
          "name": "Coltău",
          "county": "Maramureș",
          "sirsup": 179846,
          "anchor": [
            23.52105,
            47.59205
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 1202,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 41.19
        },
        {
          "name": "Ciceu - Mihăiești",
          "county": "Bistrița-Năsăud",
          "sirsup": 179953,
          "anchor": [
            23.95062,
            47.21905
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 226,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 20.55
        },
        {
          "name": "Porumbești",
          "county": "Satu Mare",
          "sirsup": 180028,
          "anchor": [
            22.96819,
            47.9746
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 489,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 22.11
        },
        {
          "name": "Boghiș",
          "county": "Sălaj",
          "sirsup": 180037,
          "anchor": [
            22.74473,
            47.1617
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 485,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 25.99
        },
        {
          "name": "Bărbulești",
          "county": "Ialomița",
          "sirsup": 180064,
          "anchor": [
            26.59719,
            44.7394
          ],
          "motherTongueCount": 6229,
          "percentOfKnownMotherTongue": 94.39
        },
        {
          "name": "Deronje",
          "country": "Serbia",
          "variety": "Gurbetsky",
          "referenceCode": "YU-002",
          "anchor": [
            19.22,
            45.455
          ],
          "note": "Gurbetsky Romani, RMS YU-002. Comparative Gurbet gra; the local horse response was not independently recovered. Approximate town locator; this is a documented language sample, not a population-density estimate.",
          "sources": [
            {
              "title": "Manchester Romani Project, RMS dialect sample inventory: documented community reference locations",
              "url": "https://www.kratylos.org/~raphael/romani/db/dialects.html"
            }
          ]
        },
        {
          "name": "Beočin",
          "country": "Serbia",
          "variety": "Bugurdži Arli",
          "referenceCode": "YU-012",
          "anchor": [
            19.72,
            45.19
          ],
          "note": "Bugurdži Arli Romani, RMS YU-012. Comparative Arlije/Bugurdži gras; the local horse response was not independently recovered. Approximate town locator; this is a documented language sample, not a population-density estimate.",
          "sources": [
            {
              "title": "Manchester Romani Project, RMS dialect sample inventory: documented community reference locations",
              "url": "https://www.kratylos.org/~raphael/romani/db/dialects.html"
            }
          ]
        },
        {
          "name": "Gjilan / Gnjilane",
          "country": "Kosovo",
          "variety": "Kosovan Arli",
          "referenceCode": "YU-016",
          "anchor": [
            21.47,
            42.46
          ],
          "note": "Kosovan Arli Romani, RMS YU-016. Comparative Arlije gras; the local horse response was not independently recovered. Approximate town locator; this is a documented language sample, not a population-density estimate.",
          "sources": [
            {
              "title": "Manchester Romani Project, RMS dialect sample inventory: documented community reference locations",
              "url": "https://www.kratylos.org/~raphael/romani/db/dialects.html"
            }
          ]
        },
        {
          "name": "Šutka, Skopje",
          "country": "North Macedonia",
          "variety": "Arli",
          "referenceCode": "MK-003",
          "anchor": [
            21.42,
            42.04
          ],
          "note": "Arli Romani, RMS MK-003. Comparative Arlije gras; the local horse response was not independently recovered. Approximate town locator; this is a documented language sample, not a population-density estimate.",
          "sources": [
            {
              "title": "Manchester Romani Project, RMS dialect sample inventory: documented community reference locations",
              "url": "https://www.kratylos.org/~raphael/romani/db/dialects.html"
            }
          ]
        },
        {
          "name": "Sofia",
          "country": "Bulgaria",
          "variety": "Sofia Erli",
          "referenceCode": "BG-024",
          "anchor": [
            23.32,
            42.7
          ],
          "note": "Sofia Erli Romani, RMS BG-024. Community documentation; no independently recovered local horse lemma. Approximate town locator; this is a documented language sample, not a population-density estimate.",
          "sources": [
            {
              "title": "Manchester Romani Project, RMS dialect sample inventory: documented community reference locations",
              "url": "https://www.kratylos.org/~raphael/romani/db/dialects.html"
            }
          ]
        },
        {
          "name": "Fier / Fieri",
          "country": "Albania",
          "variety": "Mečkari",
          "referenceCode": "AL-001",
          "anchor": [
            19.56,
            40.72
          ],
          "note": "Mečkari Romani, RMS AL-001. Community documentation; no independently recovered local horse lemma. Approximate town locator; this is a documented language sample, not a population-density estimate.",
          "sources": [
            {
              "title": "Manchester Romani Project, RMS dialect sample inventory: documented community reference locations",
              "url": "https://www.kratylos.org/~raphael/romani/db/dialects.html"
            }
          ]
        },
        {
          "name": "Parakalamos",
          "country": "Greece",
          "variety": "Romacilikanes",
          "referenceCode": "GR-002",
          "anchor": [
            20.565,
            39.875
          ],
          "note": "Romacilikanes Romani, RMS GR-002. Local grast is directly documented in Matras (2004), p. 72. Approximate town locator; this is a documented language sample, not a population-density estimate.",
          "sources": [
            {
              "title": "Manchester Romani Project, RMS dialect sample inventory: documented community reference locations",
              "url": "https://www.kratylos.org/~raphael/romani/db/dialects.html"
            },
            {
              "title": "Matras (2004), The Romani dialect of Parakalamos, p. 72: grast, horse",
              "url": "https://www.kratylos.org/~raphael/romani/downloads/2/Matras_Parakal.pdf#page=14"
            }
          ]
        },
        {
          "name": "Budva",
          "country": "Montenegro",
          "variety": "Gurbet",
          "referenceCode": "YU-017",
          "anchor": [
            18.84,
            42.29
          ],
          "note": "Gurbet Romani, RMS YU-017. Comparative Gurbet gra; the local horse response was not independently recovered. Approximate town locator; this is a documented language sample, not a population-density estimate.",
          "sources": [
            {
              "title": "Manchester Romani Project, RMS dialect sample inventory: documented community reference locations",
              "url": "https://www.kratylos.org/~raphael/romani/db/dialects.html"
            }
          ]
        },
        {
          "name": "Čakovec",
          "country": "Croatia",
          "variety": "Gurbet",
          "referenceCode": "HR-001",
          "anchor": [
            16.43,
            46.385
          ],
          "note": "Gurbet Romani, RMS HR-001. Comparative Gurbet gra; the local horse response was not independently recovered. Approximate town locator; this is a documented language sample, not a population-density estimate.",
          "sources": [
            {
              "title": "Manchester Romani Project, RMS dialect sample inventory: documented community reference locations",
              "url": "https://www.kratylos.org/~raphael/romani/db/dialects.html"
            }
          ]
        },
        {
          "name": "Krompachy",
          "country": "Slovakia",
          "variety": "East Slovak",
          "referenceCode": "SK-011",
          "anchor": [
            20.875,
            48.915
          ],
          "note": "East Slovak Romani, RMS SK-011. Comparative East Slovak grast; the local horse response was not independently recovered. Approximate town locator; this is a documented language sample, not a population-density estimate.",
          "sources": [
            {
              "title": "Manchester Romani Project, RMS dialect sample inventory: documented community reference locations",
              "url": "https://www.kratylos.org/~raphael/romani/db/dialects.html"
            }
          ]
        },
        {
          "name": "Győr",
          "country": "Hungary",
          "variety": "Lovari",
          "referenceCode": "HU-004",
          "anchor": [
            17.635,
            47.685
          ],
          "note": "Lovari Romani, RMS HU-004. Community documentation; no independently recovered local horse lemma. Approximate town locator; this is a documented language sample, not a population-density estimate.",
          "sources": [
            {
              "title": "Manchester Romani Project, RMS dialect sample inventory: documented community reference locations",
              "url": "https://www.kratylos.org/~raphael/romani/db/dialects.html"
            }
          ]
        },
        {
          "name": "Chișinău / Kišinev",
          "country": "Moldova",
          "variety": "Laješa / Kišinevcy",
          "referenceCode": "MD-001",
          "anchor": [
            28.835,
            47.01
          ],
          "note": "Laješa / Kišinevcy Romani, RMS MD-001. Community documentation; no independently recovered local horse lemma. Approximate town locator; this is a documented language sample, not a population-density estimate.",
          "sources": [
            {
              "title": "Manchester Romani Project, RMS dialect sample inventory: documented community reference locations",
              "url": "https://www.kratylos.org/~raphael/romani/db/dialects.html"
            }
          ]
        }
      ],
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Sumi (2017), The influence of the Romanian language on the Romani idiom of Turda, p. 94: grast, horse",
          "url": "https://www.diacronia.ro/ro/indexing/details/A26086/pdf#page=10"
        },
        {
          "title": "Halwachs, Klinge and Schrammel-Leber (2013), RomIdent Paper 3, p. 10 table 2: Romani horse cognates and Armenian loan origin",
          "url": "https://www.kratylos.org/~raphael/romani/virtuallibrary/librarydb/web/files/pdfs/356/Paper3.pdf#page=11"
        },
        {
          "title": "Manchester Romani Project: Early Romani, Armenian loan grast",
          "url": "https://www.kratylos.org/~raphael/romani/whatis/language/earlyromani.html"
        },
        {
          "title": "ISPMN, Romanian INS RPL 2021 tables 2.02.2 and 2.03.2: ethnicity and mother tongue are separate indicators",
          "url": "https://www.ispmn.gov.ro/maps2022"
        },
        {
          "title": "Manchester Romani Project, RMS dialect sample inventory: documented community reference locations",
          "url": "https://www.kratylos.org/~raphael/romani/db/dialects.html"
        },
        {
          "title": "Matras (2004), The Romani dialect of Parakalamos, p. 72: grast, horse",
          "url": "https://www.kratylos.org/~raphael/romani/downloads/2/Matras_Parakal.pdf#page=14"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "Grast is documented in Carpathian Romani at Poiana–Turda by Sumi (2017, p. 94), Kalderaš Romani in the comparative source, and locally in Parakalamos, Greece (Matras 2004, p. 72). Related forms include Gurbet gra, Arlije/Bugurdži gras and German Sinti graj. The caption identifies the displayed word as Romani. The 58 Romanian census markers select administrative units above 20% Romani mother tongue among known responses in 2021. Twelve additional town locators represent documented Romani samples across the Balkans, Slovakia, Hungary and Moldova. These are different selection methods, not comparable population densities or complete coverage. Local horse responses were not independently recovered for most town references; per-point notes distinguish direct lexical evidence from comparative forms or community documentation. No uniform grast pronunciation or exclusive dialect territory is inferred from the dots.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Early Armenian loan",
          "form": "grast"
        },
        {
          "label": "Romani cognate set",
          "form": "grast / gras / gra / graj"
        },
        {
          "label": "Romanian references",
          "form": "grast"
        }
      ],
      "mapCaption": "Romani"
    },
    {
      "id": "rmo-de",
      "name": "Sinti Romani (Hameln, Germany)",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Indo-Aryan",
      "word": "graj",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "romani-grast",
      "mapAnchor": [
        9.36,
        52.1
      ],
      "mapPoint": true,
      "mapSize": 18,
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Halwachs, Klinge and Schrammel-Leber (2013), RomIdent Paper 3, p. 10 table 2: Romani horse cognates and Armenian loan origin",
          "url": "https://www.kratylos.org/~raphael/romani/virtuallibrary/librarydb/web/files/pdfs/356/Paper3.pdf#page=11"
        },
        {
          "title": "Manchester Romani Project, Sinti dialect sampler: Hameln, Germany, Holzinger 1993",
          "url": "https://www.kratylos.org/~raphael/romani/interactive/sampler/d901.html"
        },
        {
          "title": "Elšík and Matras, Modals in Romani, p. 20 example 28: Hameln Sinti grajes, horse.ACC, citing Holzinger 1993:325",
          "url": "https://www.kratylos.org/~raphael/romani/downloads/2/Elsik-Matras_Modals%20in%20Romani.pdf#page=20"
        },
        {
          "title": "Manchester Romani Project: Early Romani, Armenian loan grast",
          "url": "https://www.kratylos.org/~raphael/romani/whatis/language/earlyromani.html"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "The Manchester sampler identifies a German Sinti reference community at Hameln. Local accusative grajes is documented by Holzinger (1993:325), cited in Elsik and Matras; nominative graj is supplied by the comparative Sinti table. The marker is a documented linguistic reference, not a territorial boundary or a claim that Hameln has the largest Sinti population. Western Sinti graj is cognate with Romanian grast, not a separate deep horse-word origin.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Early Armenian loan",
          "form": "grast"
        },
        {
          "label": "Romani cognate set",
          "form": "grast / graj"
        },
        {
          "label": "German Sinti reference",
          "form": "graj (ACC grajes)"
        }
      ],
      "mapCaption": "Sinti Romani"
    },
    {
      "id": "rmt-sy",
      "name": "Domari (Aleppo word; Damascus community reference)",
      "family": "Indo-European",
      "branch": "Indo-Aryan",
      "word": "agōra",
      "romanization": "",
      "root": "domari-ghota",
      "mapPoint": true,
      "mapAnchor": [
        37.14,
        36.23
      ],
      "mapSize": 18,
      "minorityLocations": [
        {
          "name": "Sayyida Zainab, Damascus region",
          "anchor": [
            36.34,
            33.45
          ],
          "note": "Community reference documented in older sources; exact present-day local horse form was not verified. Aleppo agōra is the displayed lexical reference, not an independent Damascus elicitation.",
          "mapCaption": "Domari",
          "mapOffset": [
            40,
            35
          ]
        }
      ],
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Herin (2012), The Domari Language of Aleppo, p. 17: agor-es / agor-en from Indo-Aryan ghota; p. 2: Damascus community",
          "url": "https://journals.dartmouth.edu/journals/xmlpage/1/article/412?htmlOnce=yes"
        },
        {
          "title": "Herin (2016), Elements of Domari Dialectology, p. 46 table 7: northern (a)gora, southern gori",
          "url": "https://domari.org/wp-content/uploads/2026/08/bruno_herin_2016_elements_of_domari_dialectology_mediterranean_language_review_23.pdf"
        },
        {
          "title": "Matras and Kelzi (2024), The Dom language of Aleppo, pp. 9–10: agora in the authors transcription; pp. 4–5: diaspora and source-speaker limits",
          "url": "https://domari.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/matras-kelzi-2024-dom-language-of-aleppo-preliminary-sketch.pdf"
        },
        {
          "title": "Groome (1891), Persian and Syrian Gypsies, p. 25: historical Damascus horse phrases collected in 1881",
          "url": "https://domari.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/groome_1891_persian_and_syrian_gypsies.pdf"
        }
      ],
      "notes": "Agōra follows the northern citation (a)gōra in Herin (2016, p. 46); the stem agōr- is directly attested in Aleppo by Herin (2012). Matras and Kelzi (2024) use agorà; their à marks vowel quality rather than just stress. Scholarly Latin transcription is retained rather than inventing an Arabic spelling. The Aleppo anchor is a documented reference community; the 2024 source describes extensive post-2011 dispersal, so this is not a current population boundary. The additional Sayyida Zainab/Damascus dot records community presence in older sources, not a verified contemporary Damascus horse word. Groome’s Damascus-origin 1881 material contains historical unsegmented horse phrases, which are preserved in the audit rather than made into a modern lemma. Domari and European Romani are distinct languages. At the Damascus community reference, the same agōra reference label is repeated for legibility; it is not an independently elicited Damascus form.",
      "chain": [
        {
          "label": "Inherited Indo-Aryan horse-word set",
          "form": "ghōṭa"
        },
        {
          "label": "Northern Domari citation",
          "form": "(a)gōra"
        },
        {
          "label": "Aleppo references",
          "form": "agōra / agorà"
        }
      ],
      "mapCaption": "Domari",
      "mapOffset": [
        0,
        -2
      ]
    }
  ],
  "methodology": {
    "title": "Lexical and etymological method",
    "asOf": "2026-10-19",
    "scope": "128 selected horse word / regional reference entries across Europe and neighbouring regions, including coexisting words and dispersed minority communities.",
    "comparison": "Colours follow displayed etymological routes. The PIE horse noun has separate Scottish Gaelic, Iranian and Greek routes. Caballus has separate Romance, Celtic and Albanian routes. In Greece, Russia and Kazakhstan, diagonal stripes show coexisting words with different origins in the same language area; the stripe proportions are decorative, not usage statistics. Small colour bars beneath those word labels identify their respective roots.",
    "chains": "Chains are schematic, not complete dated sound histories. Borrowing and derivation are noted; shared colour does not imply direct inheritance. Asterisks mark reconstructed, unattested forms. Alternate words keep their own origin chains; geographic coexistence is not a claim of cognacy.",
    "uncertainty": "An asterisk marks a reconstructed form. The legend uses “loan ?” for a possible borrowing. Other uncertainties, including disputed deeper origins and early borrowing directions, are explained in the entry notes rather than abbreviated in the legend. The origin of caballus/*kaballos and the deeper origin of English horse are disputed. Finnic *hëpo is not automatically merged with PIE *h₁éḱwos. Early Iranian relationships proposed for Caucasian horse words remain proposals. No indigenous Canarian horse word was verified; that label and its historical island-reference fill are omitted, leaving the modern Spanish reference layer. The former snow gloss tener? is not reused.",
    "standards": "Non-Latin labels retain native scripts with a parenthesized romanized reading beneath. Scholarly Latin transcriptions are used where no reliable native spelling was checked. Romanizations are not IPA. Northern Luri uses a local speaker wordlist; the Iraqi reference ḥiṣān is also attested in a Baghdadi Arabic study, without asserting uniform regional vowels. Mandaic is literary/liturgical. The Maaloula label uses an editorial Syriac rendering of Arnold’s attested sūsča, with the spelling convention and its limits documented in that entry.",
    "sources": "Wiktionary is a community-edited secondary reference. Entries are linked individually, with institutional and primary lexical sources for key unusual varieties. Research records and the source catalog retain the distinction between checked forms and unresolved deeper histories.",
    "license": "Brief lexical facts and original explanatory summaries with attribution. Wiktionary is CC BY-SA 4.0; third-party dictionaries and research retain their own terms."
  },
  "communityReferences": [
    {
      "id": "kawliya-iq",
      "name": "Kawliya (Iraq)",
      "mapCaption": "Kawliya",
      "anchor": [
        44.92,
        31.99
      ],
      "mapOffset": [
        -15,
        28
      ],
      "notes": "No modern Iraqi Kawliya-specific word for horse has been verified. The open marker records documented community presence only and is not assigned a horse-word origin colour. Newbold (1856) recorded asp from a Duman informant from Altun Kupri; that historical northern Iraqi record is not substituted for present-day Kawliya speech in southern Iraq. Iraqi communities have varied language practices and identities.",
      "locationNote": "Approximate Diwaniyah regional reference, not an exact village coordinate, boundary or current population estimate. Reuters reported from Al-Zuhoor village, Diwaniya, in 2018; Minority Rights Group documents communities in Al-Qadissiya.",
      "sources": [
        {
          "title": "Reuters (2018), Children of Iraq’s Kawliya go to school after 14-year hiatus: Al-Zuhoor village, Diwaniya",
          "url": "https://www.reutersconnect.com/item/children-of-iraqs-kawliya-go-to-school-after-14-year-hiatus/dGFnOnJldXRlcnMuY29tLDIwMTg6bmV3c21sX1ZBOEJUSjRVVA"
        },
        {
          "title": "Newbold (1856), The Gypsies of Egypt, pp. 303–304: historical Duman informant from Altun Kupri, asp, horse",
          "url": "https://domari.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/newbold_1856_the_gypsies_of_egypt.pdf"
        },
        {
          "title": "Minority Rights Group (2017), Iraqi Kawliyah communities, including Al-Qadissiya and Baghdad/Basra/Mosul surroundings",
          "url": "https://www.refworld.org/reference/countryrep/mrgi/2017/en/107422"
        },
        {
          "title": "Edgcumbe (2024), MERI Policy Paper 6(2), pp. 5–6: heterogeneous Iraqi community identities",
          "url": "https://www.meri-k.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/MERI-Policy-Paper-vol.6-no.2-1.pdf"
        }
      ]
    }
  ]
}